Note: Front Cover -- Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea -- Oceanography of the Mediterranean SeaAn Introductory GuideEdited byKatrin SchroederConsiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istit ... -- Contents -- List of contributors -- About the editors -- 1 - Introduction -- 1.1 The Mediterranean Sea, a "miniature ocean" -- 1.2 Book structure and contents -- 1.3 Learning objectives at a glance -- References -- 2 - Mediterranean Sea evolution and present-day physiography -- 2.1 Origin of the Mediterranean Sea -- 2.1.1 Kinematic and geodynamical overview -- 2.1.2 Messinian salinity crisis: an extraordinary event -- 2.2 Dimensions and seafloor topography -- 2.3 Sedimentation on continental margins -- 2.3.1 Tectonic movements and sedimentation -- 2.3.2 Climate and sedimentation -- 2.4 Concluding remarks -- References -- 3 - Mediterranean climate: past, present and future -- 3.1 General climate and morphological characteristics of the Mediterranean basin -- 3.2 Instrumental observations, satellites, and reanalyses -- 3.3 Climate models and their evolution -- 3.3.1 Components of climate models and model hierarchy -- 3.3.2 Climate modeling international programs -- 3.4 Heat and moisture balance at Mediterranean regional scale and relation to surface climate -- 3.4.1 Heat budget -- 3.4.2 Moisture budget -- 3.5 The atmospheric circulation of the subtropics and mid-latitudes -- 3.5.1 The Mediterranean basin as a transitional region -- 3.5.2 The Mediterranean storm track -- 3.5.3 Remote factors affecting the Mediterranean climate -- 3.6 Evolution of Mediterranean climate -- 3.6.1 Astronomical forcing -- 3.6.2 The formation of the Mediterranean and geophysical forcing of Mediterranean climate -- 3.6.3 The last million years: the glacial cycles -- 3.6.4 The last millennia: the historical period -- 3.6.5 Anthropogenic climate change -- References. , 4 - The forcings of the Mediterranean Sea and the physical properties of its water masses -- 4.1 The forcings of the Mediterranean Sea -- 4.1.1 Exchanges through the strait of Gibraltar -- 4.1.2 Climatological mean surface flux fields -- 4.1.2.1 Wind stress -- 4.1.2.2 Heat flux -- 4.1.2.3 Freshwater flux -- 4.1.3 Temporal variability -- 4.2 The thermohaline properties of the Mediterranean water masses -- 4.2.1 Water masses, water types, and their representation -- 4.2.2 Water mass analysis and the interpretation of the TS diagram -- 4.2.3 Water mass properties and distribution in the Mediterranean Sea -- 4.2.3.1 Atlantic water -- 4.2.3.2 Intermediate water -- 4.2.3.3 Deep water -- 4.3 Other water mass tracers -- References -- 5 - Mediterranean Sea level -- 5.1 General concepts about sea level -- 5.2 Techniques for measuring sea level -- 5.2.1 Tide gauges -- 5.2.2 Satellite altimetry -- 5.2.3 Sea level proxies -- 5.2.4 Supplementary techniques for understanding sea level changes -- 5.3 Past evolution of Mediterranean Sea level -- 5.3.1 Holocene sea-level changes and the role of isostatic-related subsidence -- 5.3.2 Decadal to centennial sea level trends since the late 19th century -- 5.4 Future projections of Mediterranean Sea level -- References -- 6 - Surface wave and sea surface dynamics in the Mediterranean -- 6.1 General concepts about waves, definitions and phenomenology -- 6.2 Tides and seiches -- 6.2.1 Generalities and basic definitions -- 6.2.2 Tides in the Mediterranean Sea -- 6.3 Marine storms and coastal floods in the Mediterranean Sea -- 6.3.1 Storm surges -- 6.3.2 Planetary scale forcing of storm surges -- 6.3.3 Synoptic scale forcing of storm surges -- 6.3.4 Mesoscale forcing of storm surges -- 6.3.5 Prediction of storm surges -- 6.3.6 Coastal floods in future climates -- 6.4 Wind generated waves. , 6.4.1 Generalities and basic definitions -- 6.4.2 Wind and waves regimes in the Mediterranean Sea -- 6.4.3 Waves forecasts in the Mediterranean Sea -- 6.4.4 Past and future evolution of wind-generated waves -- 6.5 Tsunamis -- 6.5.1 Historical events in the Mediterranean Sea -- 6.5.2 Source, propagation and tsunami models -- 6.5.3 Meteotsunamis -- 6.5.4 Early warning systems -- References -- 7 - Dense and deep water formation processes and Mediterranean overturning circulation -- 7.1 General concepts -- 7.2 Dense/deep water characteristics and formation rates -- 7.3 Observations of deep/dense water formation in the Mediterranean Sea -- 7.3.1 Convection and deep water formation in the Gulf of Lion: five decades of observations -- 7.3.2 Deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean -- 7.3.2.1 The Adriatic Sea as a main contributor to Eastern Mediterranean deep waters -- 7.3.2.2 The Aegean Sea as an intermittent deep water source to the eastern Mediterranean -- 7.3.3 Formation of intermediate water masses -- 7.3.3.1 Levantine intermediate water -- 7.3.3.2 Cretan intermediate water -- 7.3.3.3 Western intermediate water -- 7.3.3.4 Tyrrhenian intermediate water -- 7.3.4 Dense shelf water formation and cascading -- 7.3.4.1 Gulf of Lion -- 7.3.4.2 Adriatic Sea -- 7.4 Theory of dense/deep water formation processes: general concepts -- 7.4.1 Theory of dense/deep water formation in the open ocean -- 7.4.2 Dense water formation on the shelf and their cascading into the deep ocean -- 7.5 Numerical modeling of deep/dense water formation -- 7.5.1 Dense/deep water formation numerical modeling in the open ocean -- 7.5.2 Dense/deep water cascading numerical modeling -- 7.6 The Mediterranean overturning circulation: structure and dynamics -- 7.6.1 Zonal overturning -- 7.6.2 Western Mediterranean overturning -- 7.6.3 Eastern Mediterranean overturning. , 7.6.4 Comparison of the Mediterranean with the North Atlantic overturning -- 7.7 Concluding remarks -- References -- 8 - Fronts, eddies and mesoscale circulation in the Mediterranean Sea -- 8.1 General concepts -- 8.2 Mediterranean Sea mesoscale variability derived from satellite altimetry -- 8.2.1 Mediterranean sea field dependency on the satellite constellation -- 8.2.2 Quantifying spatial and temporal variability -- 8.3 Eddies, fronts and vertical velocity -- 8.3.1 Vertical velocity and fronts in the Mediterranean Sea -- 8.3.2 Eddy detection, tracking and characterisation -- 8.4 Future perspectives -- References -- 9 - Recent changes in the Mediterranean Sea -- 9.1 General concepts about Mediterranean water masses and their circulation -- 9.2 Changes observed in the Eastern Mediterranean water masses -- 9.2.1 Formation of dense waters and the Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) -- 9.2.2 Decadal oscillations of the upper thermohaline circulation in the EMED -- 9.2.3 Post-EMT status in the EMED -- 9.3 Changes observed in the Western Mediterranean water masses -- 9.3.1 The twentieth century: gradual warming and salinification -- 9.3.2 Changes during the 21st century: the Western Mediterranean Transition (WMT) -- 9.4 Long-term trends and climate change -- 9.5 Impact on the Mediterranean-Atlantic system -- 9.5.1 Mediterranean outflow water (MOW) -- 9.5.2 Following the MOW signal: from the strait of Gibraltar to the North Atlantic -- 9.5.3 MOW trends and variability -- References -- 10 - Mediterranean observing and forecasting systems -- 10.1 The emergence of operational oceanography in the Mediterranean Sea -- 10.2 The framework for ocean observing and the essential ocean variables -- 10.3 Observing systems operating in the Mediterranean Sea -- 10.3.1 Satellites. , 10.3.2 In-situ and land-based remote sensing observations: systems and international coordination programs -- 10.3.2.1 Research vessels -- 10.3.2.2 Moorings -- 10.3.2.3 Tide gauges and coastal stations -- 10.3.2.4 Drifters -- 10.3.2.5 Profiling floats -- 10.3.2.6 Gliders -- 10.3.2.7 HF radars -- 10.3.2.8 FerryBox -- 10.3.2.9 Animal tagging -- 10.3.2.10 EuroGOOS and MONGOOS -- 10.3.3 Multi-platform regional and coastal observing systems -- 10.3.3.1 MOOSE -- 10.3.3.2 SOCIB -- 10.3.3.3 POSEIDON -- 10.3.3.4 Other sustained multi-platform observing systems and intensive surveys -- 10.4 Forecasting the Mediterranean Sea -- 10.4.1 General concepts -- 10.4.1.1 Hydrodynamics -- 10.4.1.2 Storm surges and meteotsunamis -- 10.4.1.3 Wind waves -- 10.4.1.4 Biogeochemistry -- 10.4.1.5 Data assimilation as a tool to integrate models and observations -- 10.4.1.6 Reaching coastal scales -- 10.4.1.7 Coupling hydrodynamics, wave, hydrology, and atmospheric components -- 10.4.2 Illustration of some of the Mediterranean regional ocean prediction systems -- 10.4.2.1 Copernicus marine environment monitoring service -- 10.4.2.2 SOCIB -- 10.4.2.3 Poseidon -- 10.4.2.4 Other prediction systems -- 10.5 Data management and distribution -- 10.6 Concluding remarks -- References -- 11 - Mediterranean Sea general biogeochemistry -- 11.1 Dissolved oxygen distribution and ventilation -- 11.1.1 Introduction -- 11.1.2 Measurements of oxygen and models contribution -- 11.1.3 Dissolved oxygen distribution in the Mediterranean Sea -- 11.1.4 Ventilation mechanisms -- 11.1.5 Long term trends: in situ observation and model contribution -- 11.2 Dissolved nutrients: forms, sources, distribution, and dynamics -- 11.2.1 Introduction -- 11.2.2 Nutrient forms and sources -- 11.2.3 Nutrients distribution -- 11.2.4 Impact of the circulation on nutrients and biological dynamics. , 11.2.5 Anomalous N:P ratio.