Note: Chemical Sensors and Biosensors for Medical and Biological Applications -- Contents -- Preface -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Chemical Sensors as Alternative Analytical Tools -- 1.2 The Concept of Chemical and Biochemical Sensors -- 1.3 Recognition Processes and Sensor Technology: Milestones -- 1.4 Goals for Future Developments and Trends -- 1.4.1 Trends -- 1.4.2 Miniatuization Nanotechnology -- 1.4.3 In Vivo and In Situ Monitoring -- 1.4.4 The Analytical Laboratory in the 21st Century (Conclusions) -- References -- 2 Chemical and Biochemical Sensors -- 2.1 Classification, Specification, and Nomenclature of Chemical Sensors -- 2 2 Molecular Recognition Processes for Ions and Neutral Species -- 2.2.1 Introduction -- 2.2.2 Molecular Interactions: Tools and Calculations -- 2.2.3 Molecular Recognition of Ions -- 2.2.4 Hydrogen Bonds -- 2.2.5 Molecular Recognition of Enantiomers -- 2.2.6 Molecular Interactions within the Aqueous Medium -- 2.2.7 Catalysis by Enzymes, Enzyme Mimics and Host-Reactands -- 2.2.8 Catalytic Antibodies -- 2.2.9 Multitopic Recognition of Immunological Systems -- 2.2.10 Conclusions and Considerations for Ligand Design -- References -- 3 Controlling Sensor Reactions -- 3.1 Thermodynamically Controlled Sensor Reactions: Reversibility and Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- 3.1.1 The Chemical Potential and the Partition Equilibrium -- 3.1.2 The Recognition and Transduction Process -- 3.1.3 The Electrochemical Potential and the (Potentiometric) Sensor Response -- 3.2 Thermodynamics of Nonequilibria: Diffusion and Steady-State -- 3.3 Rate-Controlled Sensor Reactions: Mediated Enzyme Reactions -- 3.4. Nonthermodynamic Assumptions -- 3.4.1 Activity Versus Concentrations -- 3.4.2 Ionic Strength and Estimates of Activity Coefficients -- 3.4.3 Activity and Concentration of an Electrolyte: IFCC / IUPAC Definitions -- 3.4.4 The Osmotic Coefficient. , 3.4.5 Calibration, Standardization, and Comparisons with Definitive or Reference Procedures -- 3.4.6 The Liquid Junction Potential under Physiological Conditions -- References -- 4 The Artificial Analyte-Selective Membrane Limitations, Technological Precautions and Developments -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Types of Membranes and Membrane Models -- 4.2.1 The Biological Membrane -- 4.2.2 Artificial Membranes -- 4.3 The Selectivity Coefficient -- 4.4 The Membrane Composition and the Membrane Medium -- 4.4.1 The Influence of the Permittivity and of Plasticizers -- 4.4.2 The Effect of Electron Pair Donor (EPD) and Acceptor (EPA) . Properties of Solvents . Solubilization Properties of the Membrane -- 4.4.3 The Influence of the Aqueous Sample Environment -- 4.4.4 The Influence of the Surface Tension -- 4.4.5 The Effect of Lipophilic Anionic Sites -- 4.4.6 The Effect of the Ligand Concentration -- 4.5 Response Behavior, Sensitivity, and Detection Limit -- 4.6 Lifetime,Lipophilicity, and Immobilization -- 4.7 Interactions by the Biological Matrix and Precautions -- 4.7.1 Biocompatibility -- 4.7.2 Possible Mechanism of Protein Adsorption -- 4.7.3 Influence of Thrombocytes on PVC Solvent Polymeric Membranes -- 4.7.4 The Donnan Potential -- 4.7.5 The Influence of Anticoagulants -- References -- 5 Potentiometric Chemical Sensors and Biological Applications -- 5.1 Principles of Ion-Selective Electrodes -- 5.2 The Symmetric Potentiometric Cell -- 5.2.1 The Asymmetry of ISE Membranes and Reference Electrodes -- 5.2.2 Analysis During Hemodialysis -- 5.2.3 How About Human Whole Blood? -- 5.3 The Magnesium-Selective Electrode -- 5.3.1 Characteristics of the Magnesium Ion -- 5.3.2 Analytical Techniques -- 5.3.3 Natural Carriers -- 5.3.4 Synthetic Carriers -- 5.3.5 Applications -- 5.3.6 Stop-Flow Analysis, the Continuous Flow System. , 5.3.7 Significance of Magnesium-Selective Assays -- 5.4 Microelectrodes for Intracellular Measurements -- 5.4.1 The Nitrite-Selective Microelectrode -- 5.5 Miniaturized pH Probe for Intraluminal Monitoring of Gastric Juice -- 5.6 Chloride-Selective Measurements in Blood Serum and Urine -- References -- 6 Optical Sensors, Optodes -- 6.1 Introduction and Medical Applications -- 6.2 Sensors Based on Intrinsic Optical Effects of the Target Compound -- 6.2.1 Sensors Based on Inherent Optical Characteristics of a Specific analyte -- 6.2.2 Sensors Based on Inherent Optical Characteristics of a Host Responding to Analyte Quantity with an Optical Effect -- 6.3 Sensors Based on a Labeled Host Compound or a Labeled Competitive Analyte -- 6.4 Chemical Sensors Based on a Second Component: "Simon Optodes -- 6.4.1 Chemical Principles of Operation -- 6.4.2 Optode Membranes for Cations -- 6.4.3 Optode Membranes for Anions -- 6.4.4 Optodes for Gases and Neutral Species -- 6.4.5 Principles of Reactions, Thermodynamic Equilibria and Response Functions -- 6.4.6 Medical Assays: Applications to Diluted Plasma -- 6.4.7 Analytical Performance Parameters -- 6.5 The Optical Transduction Process -- 6.5.1 Absorbance Measurements in Transmission Mode -- 6.5.2 Optical Transducing Elements Based on Multiple Internal Reflection(MIRE) -- 6.6 Trend to Miniaturized Integrated Optical Sensors (MIOS) -- 6.7 NIR-Absorbing Dyes -- 6.8 Conclusions: Electrodes versus Optodes, Possibilities of Neutral Substrates -- References -- 7 Data Validation and Interpretation -- 7.1 Introduction: What Does "Data" Mean? What Does "Information" Mean? -- 7.2 The Results of Analytical Tests: Random Numbers or Information Base? -- 7.2.1 Information,Interpretation, and Decision Making -- 7.2.2 What Does Information Mean? -- 7.2.3 The Bayesian Approach. , 7.2.4 General Validation of Clinical Tests and Analytical Results -- 7.2.5 ROC Analysis (Receiver Operating Characteristics) -- 7.2.6 The Likelihood Ratio -- 7.2.7 Multivariate and Clustering Procedure -- 7.3 Goals in Analytical and Clinical Chemistry -- 7.3.1 Analytical Errors and Biological Variation -- 7.3.2 The Biological Scattering Range as the Dynamic Range -- 7.3.3 Accuracy Assessment -- 7.3.4 Conclusions and Recommendations for Planning Diagnostic Tests -- References -- Appendices -- Appendix 1: Milestones in the Development of Chemical and Biochemical Sensors -- Appendix 2: Terminology for the Diagnostic Performance of a Test -- Appendix 3: Biological Setting Points for Electrolytes -- Appendix 4: Allowable Analytical Errors for Electrolytes in Medical Assays -- Appendix 5: Important Cations Physicochemical Characteristics of the Five Biologically -- Appendix 6: Structures and Physical Data of Plasticizers -- Appendix 7: Nomenclature and Molecular Masses of Plasticizers -- Appendix 8: Materials and Methods Used for Preparation of Ion-Selective Electrodes and Synthesis of Hydroxy-Poly(viny1 chloride) -- Appendix 9: Required Logarithmic Selectivity Coefficients for Ion-Selective Electrodes -- Appendix 10: Synthesis and Identity of the Ion-Selective Carriers ETH 7025. ETH 3832 and ETH 5506 used in this Work -- Appendix 11: List of Structures and Selectivity Coefficients of Investigated Magnesium-Selective Ligands -- Appendix 12: IUPAC Units and Statistical Considerations -- Index.