Note: Intro -- Preface -- 1 Introduction - Discovering Microalgae as Source for Sustainable Biomass -- 1.1 All life eminates from the sun! All life originates from the sea! -- 1.2 Sustainable microalgal biomass of the third generation -- 1.2.1 Microalgae produce 5 times more biomass per hectare than terrestrial crops -- 1.2.2 Microalgae can be cultivated in arid areas which are not suitable for agriculture -- 1.2.3 Microalgae exhibit high lipid contents over 50% and high titers of other products -- 1.3 The technical challenge -- 1.3.1 Microalgae can use CO2 and sunlight -- 1.3.2 Microalgae can deliver cheap sustainable biomass for bulk chemicals and biofuels -- 1.3.3 Microalgae can be produced nearly everywhere -- 1.3.4 Microalgae do not need pesticides and only little fertilizers -- 1.3.5 Closed photobioreactors as tools of choice -- The biological potential of microalgae -- 2 Phylogeny and systematics of microalgae: An overview -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Diversity and evolution of microalgae -- 2.2.1 Algal diversity -- 2.2.2 Algal evolution -- 2.3 Cyanobacteria: The prokaryotic algae -- 2.4 Plantae or Archaeplastida supergroup: Green algae, red algae and glaucophytes -- 2.4.1 Viridiplantae: The green algae distributed over two phyla -- 2.4.2 Rhodophyta: Red algae -- 2.4.3 Glaucophytes -- 2.5 Chromalveolate algae: The photosynthetic Stramenopiles (heterokont algae) -- 2.5.1 Diatoms (Bacillariophyta -- photosynthetic Stramenopiles) -- 2.5.2 Eustigmatophyceae and Xanthophyceae (photosynthetic Stramenopiles) -- 2.5.3 Other photosynthetic Stramenopiles -- 2.5.3.1 Raphidophyceae -- 2.5.3.2 Synurophyceae and Chrysophyceae -- 2.5.3.3 Phaeophyceae -- 2.6 Chromalveolate algae: coccolithophorids and haptophyte algae -- 2.7 Chromalveolate algae: Dinoflagellates (Dinophyta) -- 2.8 Euglenoids (Excavata supergroup) -- Acknowledgements -- References. , 3 Balancing the conversion efficiency from photon to biomass -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Definition of important terms -- 3.2.1 Photosynthetic efficiency -- 3.2.2 Growth efficiency (photon to biomass efficiency) -- 3.3 Physiological dynamics of processes which control biological energy conversion efficiency -- 3.3.1 Absorption -- 3.3.2 Regulation and efficiency of photochemistry -- 3.3.3 Regulation of electron flow -- 3.3.4 Regulation of carbon allocation -- 3.4 Conclusions for microalgal biotechnology -- References -- 4 Algae symbiosis with eukaryotic partners -- 4.1 Introduction to algae-specific symbiosis -- 4.1.1 Importance of algae symbiotic relationships -- 4.1.2 Modes of algae symbiosis with eukaryotes -- 4.2 Aquatic systems -- 4.2.1 Algae symbiosis with Cnidaria -- 4.2.1.1 Symbiont uptake and management -- 4.2.1.2 Flux of primary metabolites in host and symbiont -- 4.2.1.3 Optimizing photosynthesis for efficient metabolite exchange -- 4.2.1.4 Symbiont-derived secondary metabolites -- 4.2.1.5 Effects of environmental stress on symbiosis -- 4.2.2 Algae symbiosis with Porifera -- 4.2.2.1 Morphology of sponge-algae associations -- 4.2.2.2 Symbiont uptake, specificity and transmission -- 4.2.2.3 Flux of primary metabolites in host and symbiont -- 4.2.2.4 Symbiont-derived secondary metabolites -- 4.2.2.5 Effects of environmental stress on symbiosis -- 4.2.3 Algae symbiosis with Mollusca -- 4.2.3.1 Morphology of mollusc-algae associations -- 4.2.3.2 Symbiont uptake and maintenance -- 4.2.3.3 Flux of primary metabolites in host and symbiont -- 4.3 Terrestrial system -- 4.3.1 Lichens: Ecological pioneers -- 4.3.2 Modes of lichen symbiosis -- 4.3.3 Lichen taxonomy and evolution -- 4.3.4 Lichen morphology -- 4.3.5 Symbiotic interactions -- 4.3.6 Lichen growth and propagation -- 4.3.6.1 Lichen propagation -- 4.3.7 Symbiotic benefits for algal photobionts. , 4.3.8 Biotechnological aspects of lichen/mycobiont cultivation -- 4.3.9 Potential of bioactive lichen-derived metabolites -- References -- 5 Genetic engineering, methods and targets -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Methods in genetic engineering of eukaryotic microalgae -- 5.2.1 Transformation -- 5.2.1.1 Glass beads and silicon whiskers -- 5.2.1.2 Particle bombardment -- 5.2.1.3 Electroporation -- 5.2.1.4 Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation -- 5.2.2 Promoters -- 5.2.3 Gene silencing -- 5.2.4 Codon usage -- 5.2.5 Improvement of expression rates and secretion of proteins -- 5.2.6 Selection markers -- 5.2.7 Reporter genes -- 5.3 Examples for biotechnological relevant proteins -- 5.3.1 Proteins expressed in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii -- 5.3.2 Recombinant proteins in other microalgae -- 5.4 Future prospects/outlook -- 5.4.1 Methods for genetic engineering -- 5.4.2 Products from genetically modified microalgae -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Algenics: Providing microalgal technologies for biological drugs -- 6.1 Background and inception of the company -- 6.2 Development and optimization of proprietary technologies -- 6.3 From proofs of concept to therapeutic product candidates -- References -- Technical Means for Algae Production -- 7 Raceways-based production of algal crude oil -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Raceways -- 7.2.1 General configuration -- 7.2.2 Flow in a raceway -- 7.2.3 Power consumption for mixing -- 7.2.4 Paddlewheel design -- 7.2.5 Location -- 7.2.6 Evaporation from raceways -- 7.2.7 Temperature variations -- 7.2.8 Culture pH and carbon dioxide demand -- 7.2.9 Oxygen removal -- 7.2.10 Potential for contamination -- 7.2.11 Irradiance variation with depth -- 7.2.12 Local and average values of specific growth rate -- 7.2.13 Raceway capital cost -- 7.3 Algal crude oil as replacement petroleum -- 7.4 Algae biomass production. , 7.4.1 Productivity of biomass and oil -- 7.4.2 Limits to algal biomass productivity -- 7.4.2.1 Photosynthetic efficiency -- 7.4.2.2 Why are microalgae more efficient than terrestrial plants? -- 7.5 Economics of algal crude oil -- 7.5.1 Residual biomass -- 7.6 Concluding remarks -- 7.7 Nomenclature -- References -- 8 Cellana LLC: Algae-based products for a sustainable future -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Cellana technology and demonstration facility -- 8.3 Biorefinery approach -- 8.4 Prospects -- References -- 9 Principles of photobioreactor design -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Major factors governing the production of microalgae -- 9.3 Open systems -- 9.3.1 Open raceways -- 9.3.1.1 Technical issues -- 9.3.1.2 Scale-up -- 9.3.1.3 Drawbacks -- 9.4 Enclosed photobioreactors -- 9.4.1 Flat-panel photobioreactors -- 9.4.1.1 Technical issues -- 9.4.1.2 Scale-up -- 9.4.1.3 Drawbacks -- 9.4.2 Tubular photobioreactors -- 9.4.2.1 Technical issues -- 9.4.2.2 Scale-up -- 9.5 Summary of major characteristics of large-scale algal cultures systems -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Knowledge models for the engineering and optimization of photobioreactors -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Theoretical background for radiation measurement and handling -- 10.2.1 Main physical variables -- 10.2.2 Solar illumination -- 10.3 Modeling light-limited photosynthetic growth in photobioreactors -- 10.3.1 Overview of the modeling approach -- 10.3.2 Mass balances -- 10.3.3 Stoichiometry of photosynthetic growth -- 10.3.3.1 Simple stoichiometric equations -- 10.3.3.2 Structured stoichiometric equations -- 10.3.4 Kinetic modeling of photosynthetic growth -- 10.3.5 Energetics of photobioreactors -- 10.3.6 Radiative transfer modeling -- 10.3.6.1 Radiative transfer equation -- 10.3.6.2 Optical and radiative properties for micro-organisms. , 10.4 Illustrations of the utility of modeling for the understanding and optimization of cultivation systems -- 10.4.1 Understanding the role of light-attenuation conditions -- 10.4.1.1 Illuminated fraction y -- 10.4.1.2 Achieving maximal productivities with appropriate definition of light-attenuation conditions -- 10.4.1.3 Prediction of biomass concentration and productivity -- 10.4.1.4 Engineering formula for assessment of maximum kinetic performance in PBRs -- 10.4.2 Solar production -- 10.4.2.1 Prediction of PBR productivity as a function of radiation conditions -- 10.4.2.2 Engineering formula for maximal productivity determination -- 10.4.3 Modeling light/dark cycle effects -- 10.5 Acknowledgments -- 10.6 Nomenclature -- References -- 11 Construction and assessment parameters of photobioreactors -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Technical design features -- 11.2.1 Material issues -- 11.2.2 Geometric parameters -- 11.2.3 Hydrodynamic parameters -- 11.3 Measured performance criteria -- 11.4 Mode and stability of operation -- 11.5 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Autotrophic, industrial cultivation of photosynthetic microorganisms using flue gas as carbon source and Subitec's flat-panel-airlift (FPA) cultivation system -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Subitec GmbH and the flat-panel-airlift system -- 12.3 From laboratory to pilot scale -- References -- 13 Case study: Microalgae production in the self-supported ProviAPT vertical flat-panel photobioreactor system -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 ProviAPT technology and features -- 13.3 Prospects -- References -- 14 Case study: Biomass from open ponds -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Production process -- 14.2.1 Removal of coarse solids -- 14.2.2 Concentrating the biomass -- 14.2.3 Washing the biomass -- 14.2.4 Differences to closed photo-bioreactors -- 14.3 Energy consumption -- 14.4 Survey of process relevant data. , References.