Description: In order to interpret the paleoclimatic record stored in the air enclosed in polar ice cores, it is crucial to understand the fundamental lock-in process. Within the porous firn, bubbles are sealed continuously until the respective horizontal layer reaches a critical porosity. Present-day firn models use a postulated temperature dependence of this value as the only parameter to adjust to the surrounding conditions of individual sites. However, no direct measurements of the firn microstructure could confirm these assumptions. Here we show that the critical porosity is a universal constant by providing a statistically solid data set of µm-resolution 3D X-ray computer tomographic measurements for ice cores representing different extremes of the temperature and accumulation ranges. We demonstrate why indirect measurements yield misleading data and substantiate our observations by applying percolation theory as a theoretical framework for bubble trapping. Incorporation of our results does significantly influence the dating of trace gas records, changing gas age-ice age differences by up to more than 1000 years. This will help resolve inconsistencies, such as differences between East Antarctic d15N records (as a proxy for firn height) and model results. We expect our findings to be the basis for improved firn air and densification models, leading to lower dating uncertainties. The reduced coupling of proxies and surrounding conditions may allow for more sophisticated reinterpretations of trace gas records in terms of paleoclimatic changes and will foster the development of new proxies, such as the air content as a marker of local insolation.

Description: This dataset contains accumulation rates as reconstructed from ice-penetrating radar. The radar data were acquired during a traverse in 2007 and are from a 250MHz ground-penetrating radar. Accumulation rates were reconstructed using an inverse method where the depth of the radar layers inform on past accumulation rates. The age of the layers were assigned from a previous study by Karlsson et al., 2016 (doi:10.3389/feart.2016.00097).

Description: This dataset contains accumulation rates as reconstructed from ice-penetrating radar. The radar data were acquired during a traverse in 2015 and are from a 250MHz ground-penetrating radar. Accumulation rates were reconstructed using an inverse method where the depth of the radar layers inform on past accumulation rates. The age of the layers were assigned from a previous study by Karlsson et al., 2016 (doi:10.3389/feart.2016.00097).

Description: We analysed crystal-preferred orientation of c-axis and microstructure data from the Alpine ice core KCC at an unprecedented resolution and coverage of any Alpine ice core. We find that an anisotropic single-maximum fabric develops as early as 25 m depth in firn under vertical compression and strengthens under simple shear conditions towards the bedrock at 72 m depth. The analysis of continuously measured intervals with subsequent thin section samples from several depths of the ice core reveals a high spatial variability in the crystal orientation and crystal size on the 10 cm-scale as well as within a few centimeters. We quantify the variability and investigate the possible causes and links to other microstructural properties. Our findings support the hypothesis that the observed variability is a consequence of strain localisation on small spatial scales with influence on fabric and microstructure. From a methodological perspective, the results of this study lead us to challenge whether single thin sections from ice cores provide representative parameters for their depth to be used to infer the fabric development in a glacier on the large scale. Previously proposed uncertainty estimates for fabric and grain size parameters do not capture the observed variability. This might therefore demand a new scale-sensitive statistical approach.