Note: Intro -- Contents -- 1 Chemical Valorization of CO2 -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 CO2-Derived Fuels and Chemicals -- 2.1 Methane -- 2.2 Methanol -- 2.3 Dimethyl Ether -- 2.4 Formic Acid -- 2.5 Ethanol -- 2.6 CO2-Fischer-Tropsch Liquid Fuels -- 2.7 Carbon Monoxide-Syngas -- 3 CO2 Chemically Derived Materials -- 3.1 Polymers -- 3.2 CO2-Derived Building Materials -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- 2 Progress in Catalysts for CO2 Reforming -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Technologies for Capturing and Storing Carbon Dioxide -- 3 Technologies for Using Carbon Dioxide -- 4 Methane Dry Reforming Process -- 4.1 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (1928-1989) -- 4.2 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (1990-1999) -- 4.3 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (2000-2009) -- 4.4 Progress in Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming (2010-2019) -- 4.5 Current Status in the Catalysts for Methane Dry Reforming -- 5 Dry Reforming of Other Compounds -- 6 Use of Steam or Oxygen in Dry Reforming of Methane and Other Compounds -- 7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Fueled with Biogas -- 8 Commercialization of Dry Reforming Process -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- 3 Fuel Generation from CO2 -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Approaches for Directly Converting CO2 to Fuels -- 2.1 Pure CO2 Decomposition Technology -- 2.2 Reagent-Based CO2 Conversion Technology -- 2.2.1 Dry Deformation of Methane Technology -- 2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrogenation of CO2 -- 3 Biological CO2 Fixation for Fuels -- 3.1 Thermochemical Conversion -- 3.1.1 Torrefaction -- 3.1.2 Pyrolysis -- 3.1.3 Thermochemical Liquefaction -- 3.1.4 Gasification -- 3.1.5 Direct Combustion -- 3.2 Biochemical Conversion -- 3.2.1 Biodiesel -- 3.2.2 Bioethanol -- 3.2.3 Biomethane -- 3.2.4 Biohydrogen -- 3.2.5 Bioelectricity -- 3.2.6 Volatile Organic Compounds. , 4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives -- References -- 4 Thermodynamics of CO2 Conversion -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Carbon Dioxide Capture -- 3 Carbon Dioxide Utilisations -- 4 Thermodynamic Considerations -- 5 Thermodynamics of CO2 -- 5.1 The Thermodynamic Attainable Region (AR) -- 5.2 Using Hess's Law to Transform the Extents to G-H AR @ 25˚C -- 5.3 Increasing Temperature on G-H AR -- 6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5 Enzymatic CO2 Conversion -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 CO2 as a Greenhouse Gas -- 1.2 Carbon Capture, Storage, and Utilization -- 1.3 CO2 as a Chemical Feedstock -- 1.4 CO2 Conversion with Enzymes -- 2 Natural Conversion of CO2 in Cells -- 3 Enzymatic Conversion of CO2 in Cells -- 3.1 Conversion of CO2 by a Single Enzyme (in vitro) -- 3.1.1 Formate Dehydrogenase -- 3.1.2 Carbonic Anhydrase -- 3.1.3 Carbon Monoxide Dehydrogenase -- 3.1.4 Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO) -- 3.2 Conversion of CO2 by a Multi-Enzyme Cascade in vitro -- 3.3 Other Ways (Photocatalytic CO2 Methanation) -- 4 Industrial Applications -- 4.1 Alcohols -- 4.2 Organic Acids -- 4.3 Terpenoids -- 4.4 Fatty Acids -- 4.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates -- 4.6 Calcium Carbonate -- 5 Summary and Future Prospects -- References -- 6 Electrochemical CO2 Conversion -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Electrochemical CO2 Conversion -- 2.1 Fundamentals of the Process -- 2.2 Variants of Electrochemical Conversion of CO2 -- 2.2.1 Aqueous Electrolytes -- 2.2.2 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes -- 2.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolytes -- 2.2.4 Molten Salt Electrolytes -- 3 Electrochemical CO2 Conversion from Molten Salts -- 3.1 Present State of Electrochemical Reduction of CO2in Molten Salts for the Production of Solid-Phase Carbonaceous Nanomaterials -- 3.2 Direct Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 in Chloride Melts. , 3.3 Indirect Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 in Molten Salts -- 3.4 The Mechanisms of Electrode Reactions Occurring at the Cathode and Anode -- 3.5 Prospects for CO2 Conversion in Molten Salts -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- 7 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Mediated Organic Transformations -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Applications of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide -- 2.1 Hydrogenation Reactions -- 2.2 Asymmetric Hydrogenation Reactions -- 2.3 Diels-Alder Reaction -- 2.4 Coupling Reaction -- 2.5 Oxidation Reaction -- 2.6 Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation Reaction -- 2.7 Iodination Reaction -- 2.8 Polymerization Reaction -- 2.9 Carbonylation Reaction -- 2.9.1 Acetalization Reaction -- 2.9.2 Olefin Metathesis Reaction -- 2.9.3 Synthesis of heterocycles -- Synthesis of α-alkylidene Cyclic Carbonates -- Synthesis of 4-Methyleneoxazolidin-2-Ones -- Synthesis of 5-Alkylidene-1, 3-Oxazolidin-2-Ones -- Synthesis of 6-Phenyl-3a, 4-Dihydro-1H-Cyclopenta[C]furan-5(3H)-One -- Synthesis of 3, 4, 5, 6-Tetraethyl-2H-Pyran-2-One -- 3 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 8 Theoretical Approaches to CO2 Transformations -- Abstract -- 1 Carbon Dioxide Properties -- 2 CO2 Transformation as an Undeniable Necessity -- 3 CO2 Activation -- 3.1 Methodologies of CO2 Activation -- 4 Theoretical Insight of CO2 Transformation -- 4.1 The Theoretical Approach in CO2 Conversion to Value-Added Chemicals -- 4.1.1 Carbon Monoxide -- 4.1.2 Methane -- 4.1.3 Methanol -- 4.1.4 Formic Acid -- 4.1.5 Heterocycles -- Cyclic Carbonates -- Cyclic Carbamate -- Quiznazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-Dione -- 4.1.6 Summary and Outlook -- 5 Theoretical Designing of Novel Catalysts Based on DFT Studies -- 5.1 Theoretical Designing: Problems and Opportunities -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Carbon Dioxide Conversion Methods -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Molecular Structure of CO2. , 3 Thermo-Kinetics of CO2 Conversion -- 4 CO2 Conversion Methods and Products -- 4.1 Fischer-Tropsch Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) -- 4.2 Mineralization -- 4.3 Chemical Looping Dry Reforming -- 4.4 Enzymatic Conversion -- 4.5 Photocatalytic and Photo-Electrochemical Conversion -- 4.6 Thermo-Chemical Conversion -- 4.7 Hydrogenation -- 4.8 Reforming -- 5 Economic Assessment of CO2Alteration to Valuable Products -- 5.1 Syngas -- 5.2 Methanol -- 5.3 Formic Acid -- 5.4 Urea -- 5.5 Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC) -- 6 Conclusions and Future Perspective -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Closing the Carbon Cycle -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods to Capture CO2 -- 3 CO2 Capture Technologies -- 4 CO2 Capture from the Air -- 5 Biomass and Waste-Based Chemicals -- 6 Advantages of Biomass-Based Chemicals -- 7 Replacement of Carbon-Based Energy Resources -- 8 Biomass Energy -- 9 Wind Energy -- 10 Solar Energy -- 11 Ocean Energy -- 12 Geothermal Energy -- 13 Hydrothermal Energy -- 14 Conclusions -- References -- 11 Carbon Dioxide Utilization to Energy and Fuel: Hydrothermal CO2 Conversion -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Hydrothermal CO2 Conversion -- 2.1 Metals and Catalysts as Reductant -- 2.2 Organic Wastes as Reductant -- 2.3 Inorganic Wastes as Reductant -- 2.4 Biomass as Reductant -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- 12 Ethylenediamine-Carbonic Anhydrase Complex for CO2 Sequestration -- 1 Introduction -- 2 An Overview of Carbonic Anhydrase (CA) -- 3 Mechanism of Action for Biocarbonate Formation -- 4 Historical Background of Carbonic Anhydrase -- 5 Sources of Carbonic Anhydrase -- 6 Carbonic Anhydrase in Microorganism -- 6.1 Micrococcus Lylae, Micrococcus Luteus, and Pseudomonas Fragi -- 6.2 Bacillus Subtilis and Citrobacter Freundii -- 6.3 Neisseria Gonorrhoeae -- 6.4 Helicobacter Pylori -- 7 Plant Carbonic Anhydrase -- 8 Overview of CO2. , 9 Sources of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) -- 10 Effect of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) -- 11 Carbon Dioxide Capturing -- 12 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestration -- 13 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestration by Carbonic Anhydrase -- 14 Separation System for CO2 Sequestration -- 15 Cryogenic Separation -- 16 Membrane Separation -- 17 Absorption -- 18 Adsorption -- 19 Bioreactors for CO2 Sequestration -- 20 Carbonic Anhydrase Immobilization -- 21 Ethylenediamine for Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capturing -- 22 CO2 Capturing and Sequestration with Ethylenediamine-Carbonic Anhydrase Complex -- 23 CO2 Capturing and Sequestration Design and Optimization: Challenges and Future Prospects -- 24 Conclusion -- References -- 13 Green Pathway of CO2 Capture -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Molecular Structure of Carbon Dioxide -- 3 CO2 Capture System -- 3.1 Post-Combustion System -- 3.2 Pre-Combustion System -- 3.3 Oxy-Fuel Combustion System -- 4 Absorption Technology -- 4.1 Green Absorption with Ionic Liquids -- 4.1.1 Properties and Uses of Ionic Liquids -- 4.1.2 CO2 Solubility in PILs -- 4.1.3 CO2 Absorption in PILs with Carboxylate Anion -- 4.2 Reaction Mechanism Involved in CO2-Absorption -- 5 Adsorption Technology -- 5.1 Organic Adsorbents -- 5.1.1 Activated Charcoal -- 5.1.2 Biochar -- 5.1.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) -- 5.2 Other CO2 Adsorbents -- 5.2.1 Metal Oxide-Based Absorbents -- 5.2.2 Zeolites -- 5.3 Biological Processes of CO2Sequestration -- 5.3.1 Carbon Utilization by Forest and Agricultural Management -- 5.3.2 Ocean Fertilization -- 5.3.3 CO2 Capture by Microalgae -- 5.4 Electrochemical Ways for CO2 Capture -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- 14 Carbon Derivatives from CO2 -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Artificial Photoreduction -- 3 Electrochemical Reduction -- 4 Hydrogenation -- 5 Synthesis of Organic Carbonates -- 6 Reforming. , 7 Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 with Water.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- Contents -- Editors and Contributors -- 1 Organic-Inorganic Membranes Impregnated with Ionic Liquid -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Ionic Liquids: General Properties and Applications -- 3 Ionic Liquids as Electrolytes in Fuel Cells -- 4 Ionic Liquid Polymer Membranes for Fuel Cells -- 4.1 Ionic Liquid/Polymer Membranes -- 4.2 Polymerized Ionic Liquid Membranes -- 4.3 IL Gel and Composite Polymer Membranes -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 2 Organic/TiO2 Nanocomposite Membranes: Recent Developments -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 TiO2-Polymer Electrolyte Membranes (PEMs) -- 2.1 Perfluorinated Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes (PEMs) -- 2.2 Acid-Base Polymer Complex-Based Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposite PEMs -- 2.3 TiO2-Modified Polytetrafluoroethylene Membranes -- 2.4 Poly(ether ether ketone)-Based Nanocomposite PEMs -- 2.5 PANI Based Membranes -- 2.6 PES Based Membranes -- 2.7 Polysulfone-Based Membranes -- 2.8 TiO2 Solar Cells -- 2.9 Carbon Materials and Metal-Carbon Nanotube (CNTs)-TiO2 Composites -- 2.9.1 Carbon-TiO2 Composites -- 2.9.2 Graphene (GN)-TiO2 Composites -- 3 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 3 Organic/Silica Nanocomposite Membranes -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Silica Nanoparticle-Based Membranes -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Organic/Zeolites Nanocomposite Membranes -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Basic Concepts About Zeolites -- 3 Polymer-Zeolite Composite Membranes: The Role of the Zeolite -- 3.1 Influence of Si/Al Ratio -- 3.2 Proton Mobility in Zeolites -- 3.3 Internal and External Surface Area -- 3.4 Configurational Diffusion -- 3.5 Crystallite Size [17, 18] -- 3.6 Functionalization of Zeolite Surface -- 3.7 Selectivity, Proton Conductivity, and Permeability. , 4 Techniques for Producing Organic/Zeolite Nanocomposite Membranes -- 5 Synthetic Polymers/Zeolite Nanocomposite Membranes for PEMFCs -- 5.1 Route 1: Zeolite + Organic Monomers -- 5.2 Route 3: Inorganic Precursor + Organic Polymer -- 5.3 Route 4: Zeolite + Organic Polymer -- 6 Natural Polymers/Zeolite Nanocomposite Membranes for PEMFCs -- 7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 5 Composite Membranes Based on Heteropolyacids and Their Applications in Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Heteropolyacids Types and Structures -- 3 HPAs and Proton Transport in Fuel Cells -- 4 HPAs in PEM Fuel Cell -- 5 HPAs in High-Temperature and Low-Humidity PEMFC -- 6 HPAs in DMFC -- 7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 6 Organic/Montmorillonite Nanocomposite Membranes -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Membrane Fabrication Methods -- 2.1 Phase Inversion -- 2.2 Immersion Precipitation -- 2.3 Evaporation-Induced Phase Separation -- 3 Montmorillonite-Based Nanocomposites Membranes -- 4 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Electrospun Nanocomposite Materials for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Methanol Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methanol Crossover and Low Proton Conductivity -- 3 Composite SPEEK -- 4 SPEEK-Clay Nanocomposite as PEM for DMFC -- 5 Morphology Types and the Importance of Exfoliated Surface Structure on DMFC Performance -- 6 Preparation of Exfoliated Nanocomposite Membranes -- 7 Electrospinning as a Membrane Morphological Modification Technique -- 8 Electrospun Polymer-Based Nanofiber Membranes for DMFC Application -- 9 Electrospinning Parameters -- 10 Future Directions and Conclusion -- References -- 8 A Basic Overview of Fuel Cells: Thermodynamics and Cell Efficiency -- Abstract -- 1 What Is a Fuel Cell? -- 2 Fuel Cell Structure and Classification -- 3 Fuel Cell Construction. , 4 PEMFC Types, Electrode Reactions, and Cell Potential -- 4.1 H2/O2 PEMFC -- 4.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) -- 4.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells (DEFC) -- 4.4 Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFC) -- 4.5 Direct Borohydride Fuel Cells (DBFCs) -- 5 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics -- 5.1 Effect of Temperature -- 5.2 Effect of Pressure -- 5.3 Effect of Concentration of Reactant -- 6 Fuel Cell Efficiency -- 6.1 Losses in Actual System -- 6.2 Activation Overpotential -- 6.3 Ohmic Polarization Losses -- 6.4 Mass Transport Overpotential -- 7 Conclusion -- References -- 9 Organic/Inorganic and Sulfated Zirconia Nanocomposite Membranes for Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Proton-Exchange Membranes (PEMs) -- 2 Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Membranes -- 3 Organic-Sulfated Metal Oxide Hybrid Membrane -- 4 Sulfated Zirconia Nanocomposite Membranes -- 5 Conclusion and Future Prospects -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 10 Electrochemical Promotional Role of Under-Rib Convection-Based Flow-Field in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 General Description of Performance Improvements in PEMFCs -- 2.1 Proton Exchange Membrane -- 2.2 Electrode and Catalyst -- 2.3 Gas Diffusion Layer -- 2.4 Membrane Electrode Assembly -- 2.5 Bipolar Plate -- 2.6 Single Cell and Stack -- 2.6.1 Water and Heat Management -- 2.6.2 Fuel Crossover, Oxidation, and CO Poisoning -- 2.6.3 Scale-up and Long-Term Experiments -- 3 Structured Techniques for Flow-Field Optimization -- 3.1 Experimental Approaches to Flow-Field Optimization -- 3.1.1 Current Density Measurement -- 3.1.2 Flow Visualization -- 3.1.3 Polarization Curve Evaluation -- 3.2 Modeling Approaches to Flow Optimization -- 3.2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling -- 3.2.2 Two-Phase Modeling for Water Management -- 3.2.3 Complex Flow-field Interaction Modeling. , 3.3 Validation of Experimental and Numerical Results -- 4 New Flow-field Optimization Approaches Utilizing Under-Rib Convection -- 4.1 Homogeneous Distribution of the Reactants -- 4.2 Uniformity of Temperature and Current Density Distributions -- 4.3 Facilitation of Liquid Water Discharge -- 4.4 Reduction in Pressure Drop -- 4.5 Improvement in Output Power -- 5 Summary -- References -- 11 Methods for the Preparation of Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods for Preparation of Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes -- 2.1 Blending of Nanoparticles in Polymer Matrix -- 2.1.1 Phase Inversion Method for Preparation of PEMs -- 2.1.2 Solution Casting Method -- 2.1.3 Hot Press -- 2.2 Doping or Infiltration and Precipitation of Nanoparticles and Precursors -- 2.3 Self-assembly of Nanoparticles -- 2.4 Non-hydrolytic Sol-Gel (NHSG) Method -- 2.5 Layer-by-Layer Fabrication Method -- 2.6 Nonequilibrium Impregnation Reduction -- 2.7 Surface Patterning Method -- 3 Future Directions and Conclusion -- References -- 12 An Overview of Chemical and Mechanical Stabilities of Polymer Electrolytes Membrane -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Durability of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) -- 3 Proton Conductivity of PEM -- 4 Chemical Stabilities and Degradation of PEM -- 5 Mechanical Stability and Degradation of PEM -- 6 Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 13 Electrospun Nanocomposite Materials for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Electrospinning Process -- 2.1 Electrospun Fibers -- 2.1.1 Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -- 2.1.2 Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) -- 2.1.3 Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) -- 2.1.4 Poly(arylene ether)s -- 2.1.5 Poly(imide)s -- 2.1.6 Poly(benzimidazole) (PBI) -- 2.2 Crosslinking of Electrospun Fibers. , 2.3 Interface Bonding -- 3 Reducing Methanol Crossover -- 4 Improving Proton Conductivity -- 4.1 Electrospinning of Nafion -- 4.2 Aligned Nanofibers -- 5 Other Applications of Electrospinning in Fuel Cells -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- 14 Fabrication Techniques for the Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Recent Developments of PEM-Based on Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites -- 3 Fabrication Techniques for the Preparation of PEM -- 3.1 Different Polymerization Routes -- 3.2 Plasma Methods -- 3.3 Sol-Gel Method -- 3.4 Ultrasonic Coating Technique -- 3.5 Phase Inversion Method -- 3.6 In Situ Reduction -- 3.7 Catalyst-Coated Membrane by Screen Printing Method -- 3.8 Solution Casting Method -- 3.9 Other Methods -- 4 Summary -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 15 Chitosan-Based Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cell Applications -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Chitosan: An Overview -- 3 Characterization of the Polymer Membrane and Their Desired Properties -- 4 Chitosan Based Membranes for Polymer Electrolyte -- 4.1 Chitosan Blend Polymer Electrolyte -- 4.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked Polymer Electrolyte -- 4.3 Chitosan Polymer Composite Based Polymer Electrode -- 5 Chitosan for Fuel Cell -- 6 Chitosan for Biofuel Cell -- 6.1 Microbial Biofuel Cell -- 6.2 Enzymatic Biofuel Cell -- 7 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 16 Fuel Cells: Construction, Design, and Materials -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Different Types of Fuel Cells -- 3 Construction and Design of Different FC -- 3.1 PEMFC -- 3.2 DMFC -- 3.3 AEMFC -- 3.4 PAFC -- 3.5 SOFC -- 3.6 MCFC -- 4 Catalysts for Different FCs -- 5 Materials and Methods for Preparation of PEM for Fuel Cells -- 6 Characterizations and Characteristic Properties of PEM for Different FC -- 7 Summary -- References. , 17 Proton Conducting Polymer Electrolytes for Fuel Cells via Electrospinning Technique.