Description: Dinoflagellates are microbial eukaryotes that have exceptionally large nuclear genomes; however, their organelle genomes are small and fragmented and contain fewer genes than those of other eukaryotes. The genus Amoebophrya (Syndiniales) comprises endoparasites with high genetic diversity that can infect other dinoflagellates, such as those forming harmful algal blooms (e.g., Alexandrium). We sequenced the genome (~100 Mb) of Amoebophrya ceratii to investigate the early evolution of genomic characters in dinoflagellates. The A. ceratii genome encodes almost all essential biosynthetic pathways for self-sustaining cellular metabolism, suggesting a limited dependency on its host. Although dinoflagellates are thought to have descended from a photosynthetic ancestor, A. ceratii appears to have completely lost its plastid and nearly all genes of plastid origin. Functional mitochondria persist in all life stages of A. ceratii, but we found no evidence for the presence of a mitochondrial genome. Instead, all mitochondrial proteins appear to be lost or encoded in the A. ceratii nucleus.

Description: The haptophyte Phaeocystis antarctica is endemic to the Southern Ocean, where iron supply is sporadic and its availability limits primary production. In iron fertilization experiments, P. antarctica showed a prompt and steady increase in cell abundance compared to heavily silicified diatoms along with enhanced colony formation. Here we utilized a transcriptomic approach to investigate molecular responses to alleviation of iron limitation in P. antarctica. We analyzed the transcriptomic response before and after (14 h, 24 h, and 72 h) iron addition to a low-iron acclimated culture. After iron addition, we observed indicators of a quick reorganization of cellular energetics, from carbohydrate catabolism and mitochondrial energy production to anabolism. In addition to typical substitution responses from an iron-economic towards an iron-sufficient state for flavodoxin (ferredoxin) and plastocyanin (cytochrome c6 ), we found other genes utilizing the same strategy involved in nitrogen assimilation and fatty acid desaturation. Our results shed light on a number of adaptive mechanisms that P. antarctica uses under low iron, including the utilization of a Cu-dependent ferric reductase system and indication of mixotrophic growth. The gene expression patterns underpin P. antarctica as a quick responder to iron addition.

Description: Macroalgae of the order Laminariales (kelp) are important components of cold-temperate coastal ecosystems. Major factors influencing their distribution are light including UV radiation and temperature. Therefore, future global environmental changes potentially will impact their zonation, distribution patterns, and primary productivity.Many physiological studies were performed on UV radiation and temperature stress in kelp but combinatory effects have not been analyzed and so far no study is available on the molecular processes involved in acclimation to these stresses. Therefore, sporophytes of Saccharina latissima were exposed for two weeks to 12 combinations of photosynthetically active radiation, UV radiation and temperature. Subsequently, microarray hybridizations were performed to determine changes in gene expression patterns. Several effects on the transcriptome were observed after exposure experiments. Strongest effect of temperature on gene expression was observed at 2°C. Furthermore, UV radiation had stronger effects on gene expression than high PAR, and caused stronger induction genes correlated to categories such as photosynthetic components and vitamin B6 biosynthesis. Higher temperatures ameliorated the negative effects of UV radiation in S. latissima. Regulation of ROS scavenging seems to work in a compartment specific way. Gene expression profiles of ROS scavengers indicate a high amount of oxidative stress in response to the 2°C condition as well as to excessive light at 12°C. Interestingly stress levels that did not lead to physiological alterations already caused a transcriptomic response.

Description: The Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, has a key position in the Southern Ocean food web by serving as direct link between primary producers and apex predators. The southwest Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, where the majority of the krill population is located, is experiencing one of the most profound environmental changes worldwide. Up to now, we have only cursory information about krill’s genomic plasticity to cope with the ongoing environmental changes induced by anthropogenic CO2 emission. The genome of krill is not yet available due to its large size (about 48 Gbp). Here, we present two cDNA normalized libraries from whole krill and krill heads sampled in different seasons that were combined with two datasets of krill transcriptome projects, already published, in order to produce the first knowledgebase krill ‘master’ transcriptome. The new library produced 25% more E. superba transcripts and now includes nearly all the enzymes involved in the primary oxidative metabolism (Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation) as well as all genes involved in glycogenesis, glycogen breakdown, gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis and fatty acids β-oxidation. With these features, the ‘master’ transcriptome provides the most complete picture of metabolic pathways in Antarctic krill and will provide a major resource for future physiological and molecular studies. This will be particularly valuable for characterizing the molecular networks that respond to stressors caused by the anthropogenic CO2 emissions and krill’s capacity to cope with the ongoing environmental changes in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean.

Description: Research on the thermal biology of Antarctic marine organisms has increased awareness of their vulnerability to climate change, as a flipside of their adaptation to life in the permanent cold and their limited capacity to acclimate to variable temperatures. Here, we employed a species–specific microarray of the Antarctic eelpout, Pachycara brachycephalum to identify long-term shifts in gene expression after 2 months of acclimation to six temperatures between -1°C and 9°C. Changes in cellular processes comprised signalling, post-translational modification, cytoskeleton remodelling, metabolic shifts and alterations in the transcription as well as translation machinery. The magnitude of transcriptomic responses paralleled the change in whole animal performance. Optimal growth at 3°C occurred at a minimum in gene expression changes indicative of a balanced steady state. The up–regulation of ribosomal transcripts at 5°C and above was accompanied by the transcriptomic activation of differential protein degradation pathways, from proteasome-based degradation in the cold towards lysosomal protein degradation in the warmth. From 7°C upwards increasing transcript levels representing heat shock proteins and an acute inflammatory response indicate cellular stress. Such patterns may contribute to a warm-induced energy deficit and a strong weight loss at temperatures above 6°C. Together, cold or warm acclimation led to specific cellular rearrangements and the progressive development of functional imbalances beyond the optimum temperature. The observed temperature–specific expression profiles reveal the molecular basis of thermal plasticity and refine present understanding of the shape and positioning of the thermal performance curve of ectotherms on the temperature scale.

Description: Individually stereotyped vocalizations often play an important role in relocation of offspring in gregarious breeders. In phocids, mothers often alternate between foraging at sea and attending their pup. Pup calls are individually distinctive in various phocid species. However, experimental evidence for maternal recognition is rare. In this study, we recorded Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) pup vocalizations at two whelping patches in Atka Bay, Antarctica, and explored individual vocal variation based on eight vocal parameters. Overall, 58% of calls were correctly classified according to individual. For males (n = 12) and females (n = 9), respectively, nine and seven individuals were correctly identified based on vocal parameters. To investigate whether mothers respond differently to calls of familiar vs. unfamiliar pups, we conducted playback experiments with 21 mothers. Maternal responses did not differ between playbacks of own, familiar, and unfamiliar pup calls. We suggest that Weddell seal pup calls may need to contain only a critical amount of individually distinct information because mothers and pups use a combination of sensory modalities for identification. However, it cannot be excluded that pup developmental factors and differing environmental factors between colonies affect pup acoustic behavior and the role of acoustic cues in the relocation process.