Note: Air Quality in Urban Environments -- Contents -- Urban Air Pollution Climates throughout the World -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Emission and Formation of Urban Air Pollution -- 1.2 Urban Pollution Levels and Indicators -- 2 Sources in the Vicinity of the City -- 3 Impact of the Geography, Topography and Meteorology -- 3.1 Geography -- 3.2 Topography -- 3.3 Meteorology -- 4 Pollutant Dispersion in Urban Streets (see also chapter by Salmond and McKendry) -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Urban Areas (see also chapter by Bloss) -- 6 Particle Pollution in Urban Areas -- 6.1 Particle Mass Concentrations -- 6.2 Particle Number Concentrations -- 6.3 Importance of Measurement Location -- 6.4 Contribution from Natural Processes -- 7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Urban Areas -- 7.1 Sources and Emissions -- 7.2 Sampling Artefacts -- 7.3 Long Range Transport -- 7.4 Future Requirements -- 8 Trace Elements, including Heavy Metals in Urban Areas -- 8.1 Heavy Metals -- 8.2 Trace Elements -- 8.3 Recommendations for Modelling -- 9 Conclusions -- References -- Influences of Meteorology on Air Pollution Concentrations and Processes in Urban Areas -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Polluted Urban Atmosphere -- 3 The Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.1 Emissions, Intra-Urban Variability and Data Sources -- 3.2 Flow Patterns within the Urban Canopy Layer -- 3.3 Street Canyons -- 3.4 Vertical Exchange Processes: Coupling the UCL to the UBL -- 4 Larger Scale Processes Affecting Urban Air Pollution -- 4.1 Mesoscale Flows -- 4.2 Regional Transport -- 4.3 Synoptic Scales -- 4.4 Global Scales and "Chemical Weather" -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Atmospheric Chemical Processes of Importance in Cities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Emissions in the City Environment -- 3 Dynamic Considerations -- 4 Gas-phase Chemical Processing -- 4.1 NOx-Ozone Interactions. , 4.2 Oxidant Radicals and Ozone Production -- 4.3 Night-Time Processes -- 4.4 Timescales of Ozone Production -- 4.5 Analysis of Ozone Sources -- 4.6 Limits on Ozone Production: NOx-Limited and VOC-Limited -- 5 Modifications Particular to the Urban Environment -- 5.1 Radical Sources -- 5.2 VOC Speciation and Abundance -- 5.3 Primary Emissions of NO2 -- 6 Particulate Phase Chemistry -- 6.1 Chemical Composition -- 6.2 Secondary Particle Formation -- 6.3 Other Impacts of Aerosol -- 7 Modelling Urban Atmospheric Chemistry -- 8 Conclusions -- References -- Air Pollution in Underground Railway Systems -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Physical and Chemical Properties -- 2.1 Particle Mass and Number Concentrations -- 2.2 Time Variation -- 2.3 Chemical Composition -- 2.4 Size Distributions -- 2.5 Morphology and Speciation -- 3 Emission Sources -- 4 Consequences for Human Health -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Human Exposure: Indoor and Outdoor -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Characteristics of Outdoor and Indoor Exposure -- 2.1 Outdoor Exposure -- 2.2 Indoor Exposure -- 2.3 Time-Activity Patterns -- 2.4 Indoor-Outdoor Relationships -- 3 Exposure Assessment -- 3.1 Exposure Monitoring -- 3.1.1 Monitoring Networks -- 3.1.2 Personal Monitoring -- 3.1.3 Biomonitoring -- 3.2 Exposure Modelling -- 3.2.1 Proximity and Buffer Zone Models -- 3.2.2 Dispersion and Photochemical Air Quality Models -- 3.2.3 Geostatistical Interpolation and Land-Use Regression Models -- 3.2.4 Receptor-Oriented Models -- 3.2.5 Time-Activity (or Micro-Environmental) Modelling -- 3.3 Modelling Uncertainty -- 4 Evidence from Personal Exposure Surveys in Urban Areas -- 4.1 North American Studies -- 4.2 European Studies -- 5 Role of Exposure Assessment in Regulatory Control of Air Pollution -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- Health Effects of Urban Pollution -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Exposure to Air Pollutants -- 3 Epidemiological Approaches -- 3.1 Time-Series Studies -- 3.2 Intervention Studies -- 3.3 Cohort Studies -- 4 Particulate Matter -- 5 Nitrogen Dioxide -- 6 Sulfur Dioxide -- 7 Ozone -- 8 Carbon Monoxide -- 9 Carcinogenic Air Pollutants found in Urban Areas -- References -- The Policy Response to Improving Urban Air Quality -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Policy and the Evidence Base after the Smog Episodes of 1952 and 1962 -- 3 The Development of Strategies in the UK and Europe -- 4 Policy Instruments which Reduce Emissions -- 5 Future Developments in Air Quality Management Policies -- 5.1 Exposure Reduction -- 5.2 Links and Co-benefits with Climate Change Policies -- Disclaimer -- References -- Subject Index.