Note: Intro -- Preface -- References -- Contents -- Part I: Introduction -- Chapter 1: The Study Area -- 1.1 Why the Andes of Southern Ecuador? -- 1.2 The Location of the Study Site -- 1.3 Ecological Measurements and Experiments -- 1.4 Selected General Features of the Study Area -- 1.4.1 Climate Peculiarities -- 1.4.2 Landforms, Erosion and Mass Movement -- 1.4.3 Causes for the Outstanding Biodiversity -- References -- Chapter 2: Environmental Changes Affecting the Andes of Ecuador -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Land Use Dynamics -- 2.3 Climate Change and Its Effects -- 2.4 Atmospheric Nutrient Deposition -- 2.5 Aspects of Future Threats -- References -- Chapter 3: The Challenges of Sustainable Development in the Podocarpus-El Cóndor Biosphere Reserve -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Sustainable Development -- 3.3 Implications for Research in Tropical Biodiversity Hotspots -- 3.3.1 CBD Ecosystem Approach and Aichi Biodiversity Targets -- 3.3.2 Examples from the Project Area -- References -- Chapter 4: The Research Unit RU 816: Overall Approach in the Light of the Ecosystem Services Concept -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 The RU 816 Approach in the Light of the Slightly Modified MEA Ecosystem Services Concept -- 4.3 Stated Preferences for Selected Ecosystem Services -- 4.4 Conclusion -- References -- Part II: Current Situation of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services -- Chapter 5: Landscape History, Vegetation History, and Past Human Impacts -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Methods and Analyses -- 5.3 Results and Discussion -- 5.3.1 Vegetation of the Southern Ecuador -- 5.3.2 Past Climate, Vegetation, and Fire Dynamics in the PNP -- 5.3.2.1 The Late Glacial Environment -- 5.3.2.2 Early to Mid-Holocene Environment -- 5.3.2.3 Late Holocene Environment and Human Settlement History -- 5.4 Conclusions -- References. , Chapter 6: Past Dynamics of Speciation in Andean Mountain Rainforests -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Pleistocene Climate Cycles and Forest Refuges -- 6.3 Calibrated Phylogenies as a Tool to Assess Temporal Speciation Patterns -- 6.4 Material and Methods -- 6.5 Results and Discussion -- 6.5.1 The Megadiverse Moth Genus Eois as a Case Study -- 6.5.2 What Do Other Calibrated Phylogenies Tell About Andean Speciation? -- 6.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7: Diversity in Soil Fungi, Protists, and Microarthropods -- 7.1 Introduction and Background -- 7.2 Methods -- 7.3 Results -- 7.3.1 Changes in Plant Diversity as a Driver of Other Diversities -- 7.3.2 Soil Fungi: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi -- 7.3.3 Soil Protists and Microarthropods: Testate Amoebae and Oribatid Mites -- 7.3.3.1 Testate Amoebae -- 7.3.3.2 Oribatid Mites -- 7.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: Plant Diversity and Its Relevance for the Provision of Ecosystem Services -- 8.1 Introduction: Ecosystem Services Related to Plant Species Composition and Diversity -- 8.2 Materials and Methods -- 8.3 Results and Discussion -- 8.3.1 Altitudinal and Topographical Gradients as Drivers of Species Richness in the Rio San Francisco Valley -- 8.3.2 Forest Dynamics in Response to Natural Disturbance -- 8.3.3 Land Use Patterns as Determinants of Secondary Vegetation -- 8.3.4 Secondary Succession Processes in Anthropogenic Vegetation -- 8.3.5 Fragmentation Effects: Epiphytes on Remnant Trees as a Model System -- 8.3.6 Expected Effects of Reduced Plant Functional Diversity -- 8.4 Conclusion: Implications for Conservation -- References -- Chapter 9: Supporting, Regulating, and Provisioning Hydrological Services -- 9.1 Water-Related Ecosystem Services -- 9.2 Supporting Service -- 9.3 Regulating Service -- 9.4 Provisioning Service -- 9.5 Future Trends -- 9.6 Conclusion -- References. , Chapter 10: The Carbon Balance of Tropical Mountain Forests Along an Altitudinal Transect -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Materials and Methods -- 10.2.1 Climate, Geology and Vegetation of the Study Region -- 10.2.2 Study Plots -- 10.2.3 Methods for Determining Biomass and Soil C Pools and Components of Productivity -- 10.3 Results and Discussion -- 10.3.1 Carbon in Biomass and Soil -- 10.3.2 Carbon Fluxes -- 10.3.3 Altitudinal Trends -- 10.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11: Current Regulating and Supporting Services: Nutrient Cycles -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Methods -- 11.3 Results and Discussion -- 11.3.1 Deposition from the Atmosphere -- 11.3.2 Soil Moisture Regime -- 11.3.3 Conversion of Forest into Pasture -- 11.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 12: Natural Landslides Which Impact Current Regulating Services: Environmental Preconditions and Modeling -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Methods -- 12.2.1 The Statistical Landslide Model -- 12.2.2 Potential Model Parameter: Regionalization of Soil Data -- 12.2.3 Potential Model Parameter: Regionalization of Wind Data -- 12.2.4 Soil Properties and Litterfall -- 12.3 Results and Discussion -- 12.3.1 Statistical Landslide Modeling -- 12.3.2 Digital Soil Maps -- 12.3.3 Digital Wind Maps -- 12.3.4 Chemical Interactions: Soil Nutrients and Litter -- 12.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 13: Conservation, Management of Natural Forests and Reforestation of Pastures to Retain and Restore Current Provisioni... -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Material and Methods -- 13.3 Results and Discussion -- 13.3.1 Conservation -- 13.3.2 Management of Natural Forests -- 13.3.3 Reforestation -- 13.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 14: Mycorrhiza Networks Promote Biodiversity and Stabilize the Tropical Mountain Rain Forest Ecosystem: Perspectives f... -- 14.1 Introduction. , 14.2 Floristic and Mycobiont Inventories -- 14.2.1 Sampling Methods -- 14.2.2 Diversity of Plants and Mycobionts -- 14.3 Mycorrhiza Networks -- 14.3.1 Networks Analysis -- 14.3.2 Network Topologies -- 14.3.3 Underlying Biological Mechanisms Maintaining High Biodiversity -- 14.3.4 Perspectives for Ecosystem Stability -- 14.4 Potential Network Modularity by Influence of Climate -- 14.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 15: Current Provisioning Services: Pasture Development and Use, Weeds (Bracken) and Management -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Results and Discussion -- 15.2.1 The Pasture Types -- 15.2.2 Bracken Vegetation -- 15.2.3 Properties and Stability of the Pasture Soils -- 15.2.4 Vegetation Development During the Past Decade -- 15.2.5 Pasture Farming -- 15.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 16: Current Provisioning Ecosystem Services for the Local Population: Landscape Transformation, Land Use, and Plant Use -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Aims, Materials, and Methods -- 16.3 Results and Discussion -- 16.3.1 Colonization, Access to Land, and Extraction of Plant Resources -- 16.3.2 Land Use/Land Cover Change Analysis at Local Scale -- 16.3.3 Food Production of Small-Scale Farming Households: Livelihood Strategies, Cattle Ranching, Field and Garden Cropping -- 16.3.3.1 Livelihood Strategies -- 16.3.3.2 Cattle Ranching -- 16.3.3.3 Field Cropping -- 16.3.3.4 Gardening -- 16.3.4 Plant Use -- 16.4 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 17: Sustainable Agriculture and Conservation Payments Are Key Factors in Mitigating Tropical Forest Loss -- 17.1 Introduction -- 17.2 Conceptual Considerations -- 17.2.1 Land -- 17.2.2 Land Use -- 17.2.3 Agriculture as a Key Factor in Land Use -- 17.2.3.1 Agricultural Intensification -- 17.2.3.2 Conservation Payments -- 17.2.3.3 Diversification -- 17.3 Sustainable Agriculture -- 17.4 Outlook and Conclusions -- References. , Part III: Future Environmental Changes and Their Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services -- Chapter 18: Climate Change: Effects on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning -- 18.1 Introduction -- 18.2 Material and Methods -- 18.2.1 Palynological Studies of Past Vegetation Dynamics -- 18.2.2 Tree Species Diversity at the forest line -- 18.2.3 Drought Effects on Testate Amoebae -- 18.3 Results and Discussion -- 18.3.1 Palynological Studies of Past Vegetation Dynamics -- 18.3.2 Tree Species Diversity at the forest line -- 18.3.3 Drought Effects on Testate Amoebae -- 18.4 General Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 19: Global Climate Change Impacts on Local Climate and Hydrology -- 19.1 Introduction -- 19.2 Material and Methods -- 19.2.1 Future Climate Scenarios -- 19.2.2 Hydrological Modeling -- 19.3 Results and Discussion -- 19.3.1 Effects on Local Climate -- 19.3.2 Effects on Local Hydrology -- 19.4 Conclusion: Impact of Climate Change on Water-Related Ecosystem Services in the Future -- References -- Chapter 20: Impacts of Local Land-Use Change on Climate and Hydrology -- 20.1 Introduction -- 20.2 Material and Methods -- 20.2.1 Climate Conditions -- 20.2.2 Prediction of Land-Use Change -- 20.2.3 Coupled Hydro-Meteorological Modeling -- 20.3 Results and Discussion -- 20.3.1 Climatic Differences Between Land Uses -- 20.3.2 Future Land-Use Change in the San Francisco Catchment -- 20.3.3 Effects on Local Hydro-Meteorological Fluxes -- 20.3.4 Outlook and Conclusion: Impact of Land-Use Change on Water-Related Ecosystem Services -- References -- Chapter 21: Current and Future Variations of Nutrient Depositions and Influences on Tree Growth -- 21.1 Introduction -- 21.2 Methods -- 21.2.1 Sampling of Atmospheric Nutrients and Identification of Potential Sources -- 21.2.2 Projections of Future Deposition -- 21.2.3 Element Concentration History in Plants. , 21.3 Results and Discussion.