Description: We use seismic oceanography to document and analyze oceanic thermohaline fine structure across the Tyrrhenian Sea. Multichannel seismic (MCS) reflection data were acquired during the MEDiterranean OCcidental survey in April–May 2010. We deployed along‐track expendable bathythermograph probes simultaneous with MCS acquisition. At nearby locations we gathered conductivity‐temperature‐depth data. An autonomous glider survey added in situ measurements of oceanic properties. The seismic reflectivity clearly delineates thermohaline fine structure in the upper 2,000 m of the water column, indicating the interfaces between Atlantic Water/Winter Intermediate Water, Levantine Intermediate Water, and Tyrrhenian Deep Water. We observe the Northern Tyrrhenian Anticyclone, a near‐surface mesoscale eddy, plus laterally and vertically extensive thermohaline staircases. Using MCS, we are able to fully image the anticyclone to a depth of 800 m and to confirm the horizontal continuity of the thermohaline staircases of more than 200 km. The staircases show the clearest step‐like gradients in the center of the basin while they become more diffuse toward the periphery and bottom, where impedance gradients become too small to be detected by MCS. We quantify the internal wave field and find it to be weak in the region of the eddy and in the center of the staircases, while it is stronger near the coastlines. Our results indicate this is because of the influence of the boundary currents, which disrupt the formation of staircases by preventing diffusive convection. In the interior of the basin, the staircases are clearer and the internal wave field weaker, suggesting that other mixing processes such as double diffusion prevail.

Description: Hyperextension of continental crust at the Deep Galicia rifted margin in the North Atlantic has been accommodated by the rotation of continental fault blocks, which are underlain by the S reflector, an interpreted detachment fault, along which exhumed and serpentinized mantle peridotite is observed. West of these features, the enigmatic Peridotite Ridge has been inferred to delimit the western extent of the continent‐ocean transition. An outstanding question at this margin is where oceanic crust begins, with little existing data to constrain this boundary and a lack of clear seafloor spreading magnetic anomalies. Here we present results from a 160 km long wide‐angle seismic profile (Western Extension 1). Travel time tomography models of the crustal compressional velocity structure reveal highly thinned and rotated crustal blocks separated from the underlying mantle by the S reflector. The S reflector correlates with the 6.0–7.0 km s−1 velocity contours, corresponding to peridotite serpentinization of 60–30%, respectively. West of the Peridotite Ridge, shallow and sparse Moho reflections indicate the earliest formation of an anomalously thin oceanic crustal layer, which increases in thickness from ~0.5 km at ~20 km west of the Peridotite Ridge to ~1.5 km, 35 km further west. P wave velocities increase smoothly and rapidly below top basement, to a depth of 2.8–3.5 km, with an average velocity gradient of 1.0 s−1. Below this, velocities slowly increase toward typical mantle velocities. Such a downward increase into mantle velocities is interpreted as decreasing serpentinization of mantle rock with depth.

Description: In December 2017, the St. Paul fracture zone near 18°W was surveyed seismically during Maria S. Merian cruise MSM69. Fourteen ocean-bottom-seismometers and hydrophones sampled seismic shots fired along a 140 km long seismic profile, running within the ~10 km wide valley of the fracture zone, that separates 40 Ma crust in the south with 70 Ma crust in the north.

Description: Highlights • Large seafloor depressions with diameters of up 10 km across have been mapped on the southern Chatham Rise, New Zealand. • Seismic reflection data show scarce indications for vertical fluid flow but no clear link between fluid flow and depressions. • Methane gas or methane hydrates appear to be absent on the southern Chatham Rise. • Seismic evidence suggests that vertical fluid flow was likely fuelled by polygonal faulting and silica diagenesis • The depressions are the results of erosion and sediment drift deposition of bottom currents associated with the Subtropical Front. Abstract Several giant seafloor depressions were investigated on the Chatham Rise offshore New Zealand using mainly bathymetric and seismic data, supplemented by sediment cores and reported porewater geochemistry data. The depressions have diameters of up to 11 km and occur on the southern flank of the Chatham Rise in water depths between 600 and 900 m, i.e. roughly underneath the location of the strongest thermal gradients of the Subtropical Front (STF) and characterized by eastward flowing currents. With up to 150 m of relief the depressions cut into post-Miocene deposits. Some of the depressions are partially filled with drift deposits that have similar seismic characteristics as the surrounding sediments and consist of alternations of silty muds and silts. Seismic profiles also show completely filled depressions that no longer have a bathymetric expression. Despite several pipe structures indicating vertical fluid flow, neither active fluid seepage nor indications for past fluid seepage are present at the seafloor of the Chatham Rise. Also, both pore water geochemistry and geophysical data do not show indications for an existing or past gas hydrate system in the area. Instead, seismic data suggest widespread polygonal faulting and the presence of silica diagenetic fronts. The release of mineral-bound water during silica diagenesis or fluid expulsion during sediment compaction can explain the presence of vertical fluid flow features but not the giant depressions themselves. Instead, the depressions are interpreted as the result of scouring by strong bottom currents for which fluid venting may have created the nucleation points.

Description: Highlights • Elongated fault structures are conduits for focused fluid flow. • Gas migration occurs only along a sub-set of faults across Opouawe bank. • Stress state deduced from 3D fault structures appears partially stratigraphically controlled. Abstract High-resolution 2D and 3D seismic data from Opouawe Bank, an accretionary ridge on the Hikurangi subduction margin off New Zealand, show evidence for exceptional gas migration pathways linked to the stress regime of the ridge. Although the ridge has formed by thrusting and folding in response to a sub-horizontal principal compressive stress (σ1), it is clear that local stress conditions related to uplift and extension around the apex of folding (i.e. sub-vertical σ1) are controlling shallow fluid flow. The most conspicuous structural features are parallel and horizontally-elongated extensional fractures that are perpendicular to the ridge axis. At shallower depth near the seafloor, extensional fractures evolve into more concentric structures which ultimately reach the seafloor where they terminate at gas seeps. In addition to the ridge-perpendicular extensional fractures, we also observe both ridge-perpendicular and ridge-parallel normal faults. This indicates that both longitudinal- and ridge-perpendicular extension have occurred in the past. The deepest stratigraphic unit that we image has undergone significant folding and is affected by both sets of normal faults. Shallower stratigraphic units are less deformed and only host the ridge-parallel normal faults, indicating that longitudinal extension was limited to an older phase of ridge evolution. Present-day gas migration has exploited the fabric from longitudinal extension at depth. As the gas ascends to shallower units it ‘self-generates’ its flow pathways through the more concentric structures near the seafloor. This shows that gas migration can evolve from being dependent on inherited tectonic structures at depth, to becoming self-propagating closer to the seafloor.

Description: Mid-ocean ridges spreading at ultraslow rates of less than 20 mm yr−1 can exhume serpentinized mantle to the seafloor, or they can produce magmatic crust. However, seismic imaging of ultraslow-spreading centres has not been able to resolve the abundance of serpentinized mantle exhumation, and instead supports 2 to 5 km of crust. Most seismic crustal thickness estimates reflect the depth at which the 7.1 km s−1 P-wave velocity is exceeded. Yet, the true nature of the oceanic lithosphere is more reliably deduced using the P- to S-wave velocity (Vp/Vs) ratio. Here we report on seismic data acquired along off-axis profiles of older oceanic lithosphere at the ultraslow-spreading Mid-Cayman Spreading Centre. We suggest that high Vp/Vs ratios greater than 1.9 and continuously increasing P-wave velocity, changing from 4 km s−1 at the seafloor to greater than 7.4 km s−1 at 2 to 4 km depth, indicate highly serpentinized peridotite exhumed to the seafloor. Elsewhere, either magmatic crust or serpentinized mantle deformed and uplifted at oceanic core complexes underlies areas of high bathymetry. The Cayman Trough therefore provides a window into mid-ocean ridge dynamics that switch between magma-rich and magma-poor oceanic crustal accretion, including exhumation of serpentinized mantle covering about 25% of the seafloor in this region.

Description: We use seismic oceanography to document and analyze oceanic thermohaline finestructure across the Tyrrhenian Sea. Multichannel seismic (MCS) reflection data were acquired during the MEDiterranean OCcidental survey in April-May 2010. We deployed along-track expendable bathythermograph probes simultaneous with MCS acquisition. At nearby locations we gathered conductivity-temperature-depth data. An autonomous glider survey added in-situ measurements of oceanic properties. The seismic reflectivity clearly delineates thermohaline finestructure in the upper 2,000 m of the water column, indicating the interfaces between Atlantic Water/Winter Intermediate Water, Levantine Intermediate Water, and Tyrrhenian Deep Water. We observe the Northern Tyrrhenian Anticyclone, a near-surface meso-scale eddy, plus laterally and vertically extensive thermohaline staircases. Using MCS we are able to fully image the anticyclone to a depth of 800 m and to confirm the horizontal continuity of the thermohaline staircases of more than 200 km. The staircases show the clearest step-like gradients in the center of the basin while they become more diffuse towards the periphery and bottom, where impedance gradients become too small to be detected by MCS. We quantify the internal wave field and find it to be weak in the region of the eddy and in the center of the staircases, while it is stronger near the coastlines. Our results indicate this is because of the influence of the boundary currents, which disrupt the formation of staircases by preventing diffusive convection. In the interior of the basin the staircases are clearer and the internal wave field weaker, suggesting that other mixing processes such as double-diffusion prevail. Synopsis We studied the internal temperature and salinity structure of the Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean) using the multichannel seismic reflection method (the same used in the hydrocarbon industry). Low frequency sound (seismic) waves are produced at the surface with an explosive air source and recorded by a towed cable containing hydrophones (underwater microphones). The data are processed to reveal 'stratigraphy' that result from contrasts in density that are themselves caused by changes in temperature and salinity. In this way we can map ocean circulation in two-dimensions. We also deployed in situ oceanographic probes to measure temperature and salinity in order to corroborate and optimize the processing of the seismic data. We then quantified the internal gravity wave field by tracking the peaks of seismic trace wavelets. Our results show that the interior of the Tyrrhenian Sea is largely isolated from internal waves that are generated by a large cyclonic boundary current that contains waters from the Atlantic ocean and other parts of the Mediterranean. This isolation allows the thermohaline finestructure to form, where small scale vertical mixing processes are at play. Understanding these mixing processes will aid researchers study global ocean circulation and to add constraints that can help improve climate models.

Description: The Chatham Rise is located offshore of New Zealand's South Island. Vast areas of the Chatham Rise are covered in circular to elliptical seafloor depressions that appear to be forming through a bathymetrically controlled mechanism, as seafloor depressions 2-5 km in diameter are found in water depths of 800-1100 m. High resolution P-Cable 3D seismic data were acquired in 2013 across one of these depressions. The seafloor depression is interpreted as a mounded contourite. Our data reveal several smaller buried depressions (〈20-650 m diameter) beneath the mounded contourite that we interpret as paleo-pockmarks. These pockmarks are underlain by a complex polygonal fault system that deforms strata and an unusual conical feature. We interpret the conical feature as a sediment remobilization structure based on the presence of stratified reflections within the feature, RMS amplitude values and lack of velocity anomaly that would indicate a non-sedimentary origin. The sediment remobilization structure, polygonal faults and paleo-depressions are indicators of past subsurface fluid flow. We hypothesize that the pockmarks provided the necessary topographic roughness for formation of the mounded contourites thus linking fluid expulsion and deposition of contouritic drifts.

Description: The upward migration of gas through marine sediments typically manifests itself as gas chimneys or pipes in seismic images and can lead to the formation of cold seeps. Gas seepage is often linked to morphological features like seabed domes, pockmarks, and carbonate build-ups. In this context, sediment doming is discussed to be a precursor of pockmark formation. Here, we present parametric echosounder, sidescan sonar, and two-dimensional seismic data from Opouawe Bank, offshore New Zealand, providing field evidence for sediment doming. Geomechanical quantification of the stresses required for doming show that the calculated gas column heights are geologically feasible and consistent with the observed geophysical data. The progression from channeled gas flow to gas trapping results in overpressure build-up in the shallow sediment. Our results suggest that by breaching of domed seafloor sediments a new seep site can develop, but contrary to ongoing discussion this does not necessarily lead to the formation of pockmarks.

Description: About 57% of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceanic crust and new ocean floor is continuously created along the 60.000 km long mid-ocean ridge (MOR) system. About 25% of the MOR spread at an ultra-slow spreading rate of 〈20 mm/yr. At ultra-slow spreading rates the melt supply to the ridge is thought to dramatically decrease and crustal thickness decreases to a thickness of 〈6 km. However, we know little about the processes shaping crust at reduced spreading rates. A formation of crust from a magma chamber would suggest the creation of a well stratified crust, with an extrusive upper crust (layer 2) and a lower gabbroic crust (lower 3) and a well-defined crust-mantle boundary and hence a seismic Moho. In contrast, decompressional melting without formation of a magma chamber would support a crustal structure where seismic velocities change gradually from values typical of crustal rocks to mantle rocks. Here, we report results from a survey from the ultra-slow spreading Cayman Spreading Centre in the Caribbean Sea, sampling mature crust along a flowline from both conjugated ridge flanks. The seismic refraction and wide-angle survey was conducted using ocean-bottom-seismometers from Germany, the UK, and Texas and a 5500 cubic-inch airgun-array source towed by the German research vessel METEOR in April 2015. Typical crustal P-wave velocities support a thin crust of 3 to 5 km thickness. However, a well-defined Moho boundary was not observed. Thus, velocities change gradually from crustal-type velocities (〈7.2 km/s) to values of 7.5-7.8 km/s, supporting mantle rocks. In addition to P-waves, we have sampled S-waves along the profile, yielding for the first time Vp/Vs ratios for lithosphere emplaced at ultra-slow spreading rates. Interestingly, about 15 to 20% of the lithosphere has Vp/Vs ratos of 〉1.9, supporting serpentine. Domains of high Vp/Vs ratio also occur right at the seafloor, supporting large-scale exposure of mantle as proposed by geological evidence from ultra-slow spreading ridges. Ingo Grevemeyer (1), Michaela Merz (1), Anke Dannowski (1), Cord Papenberg (1), Nicholas Hayman (2), Harm van Avendonk (2), and Christine Peirce (3)