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  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    The Circular Economy of Steel Roofing and Cladding and Its Environmental Impacts—A Case Study for New Zealand
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Sustainability Vol. 14, No. 24 ( 2022-12-15), p. 16832-
    Details
    In: Sustainability, MDPI AG, Vol. 14, No. 24 ( 2022-12-15), p. 16832-
    Abstract: This paper investigates the environmental impacts of two commonly used steel roofing and wall-cladding products in New Zealand over their life cycle, taking into consideration the recycling process. The recycling process of steel is in line with the Circular Economy (CE) approach, where the goal is to prolong the material’s lifetime and possibly reduce its environmental impacts and material waste. Although the benefit of recycling steel is well recognised, the environmental impact values of different specific steel products cannot be generalised and need to be estimated. For this, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology and Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) were implemented to quantify the environmental impacts of the investigated steel products and to analyse the significance of the recycling process in reducing the impacts on the environment. This study considered modules C1–C4 and D to estimate the impacts of steel products. It was found that the recycled steel materials have an effect on reducing the environmental impacts, particularly the global warming potential (GWP) and photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), both of which were negative and of −2.36 × 106 kg CO2eq and −8.10 × 102 kg C2H4eq, respectively. However, it is important to note that not all impacts were reduced by recycling steel, which creates trade-offs within each impact indicator. In addition, when compared with locally sourced material cladding, the imported material cladding had a 6% higher negative impact value for both GWP and POCP.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2071-1050
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/su142416832
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2518383-7
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  • 2
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Spatiotemporal Model to Quantify Stocks of Metal Cladding Products for a Prospective Circular Economy
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Applied Sciences Vol. 12, No. 9 ( 2022-05-02), p. 4597-
    Details
    In: Applied Sciences, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 9 ( 2022-05-02), p. 4597-
    Abstract: The traditional linear economy (LE) approach based on a “take-make-dispose” plan that has been used in building activities over a long period has a significant impact on the environment. In the LE approach, the used materials are usually sent to landfills rather than recycled, resulting in resource depletion and excessive carbon emissions. A circular economy (CE) is expected to solve these environmental problems by promoting material “closed-loop systems”. This study was intended to quantify and analyse the global warming potential (GWP) values of specific metal roofing and cladding products to promote CE thinking. A spatiotemporal model integrated with the life cycle assessment (LCA) tool was used to quantify the GWP value of the steel products in the investigated buildings. The study analysed ten case buildings located in six different cities in New Zealand: Auckland, Wellington, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Tauranga, and Christchurch. The production stages (A1–A3), water processing (C3), disposal (C4), and recycle, reuse, and recovery stages (D) were the focus of the study in analysing the GWP values of the product’s life cycle. The study found that the production stages became the most significant emitters (approximately 99.67%) of the investigated steel products’ GWP values compared to other selected life cycle stages. However, when considering the recycling stages of the steel products, the GWP value was reduced up to 32%. Therefore, by implementing the recycling process, the amount of GWP can be reduced, consequently limiting the building activities’ environmental impacts. In addition, the integration of spatial analysis and LCA was found to have potential use and benefit in future urban mining and the development of the CE approach in the construction industry.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2076-3417
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/app12094597
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2704225-X
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  • 3
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    A Critical Review on Optimization of Cold-Formed Steel Members for Better Structural and Thermal Performances
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Buildings Vol. 12, No. 1 ( 2022-01-01), p. 34-
    Details
    In: Buildings, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 1 ( 2022-01-01), p. 34-
    Abstract: The construction and building sectors are currently responsible globally for a significant share of the total energy consumption and energy-related carbon dioxide emissions. The use of Modern Methods of Construction can help reduce this, one example being the use of cold-formed steel (CFS) construction. CFS channel sections have inherent advantages, such as their high strength-to-weight ratio and excellent potential for recycling and reusing. CFS members can be rolled into different cross-sectional shapes and optimizing these shapes can further improve their load-bearing capacities, resulting in a more economical and efficient building solution. Conversely, the high thermal conductivity of steel can lead to thermal bridges, which can significantly reduce the building’s thermal performance and energy efficiency. Hence, it is also essential to consider the thermal energy performance of the CFS structures. This paper reviews the existing studies on the structural optimization of CFS sections and the thermal performance of such CFS structures. In total, over 160 articles were critically reviewed. The methodologies used in the existing literature for optimizing CFS members for both structural and thermal performances have been summarized and presented systematically. Research gaps from the existing body of knowledge have been identified, providing guidelines for future research.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2075-5309
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/buildings12010034
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2661539-3
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  • 4
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Analyzing the Climate Change Potential of Residential Steel Buildings in New Zealand and Their Alignment in Meeting the 2050 Paris Agreement Targets
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Buildings Vol. 12, No. 3 ( 2022-03-02), p. 290-
    Details
    In: Buildings, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 3 ( 2022-03-02), p. 290-
    Abstract: This research undertakes a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) to determine the climate change potential of a typical newly built steel detached dwelling in Palmerston North, New Zealand (NZ) and assesses its results concerning the 2 °C and 1.5 °C 2050 Paris Agreement targets. The proposed, upcoming policy and actions of the NZ government relating to its residential building and construction sector, which are set with an overarching aim to allow NZ to progress towards meeting the 2050 Paris Agreement targets, are also discussed in this paper. The results of the LCA demonstrate that the projected stock of steel-framed detached houses significantly exceeds the calculated climate budget and eventual 2050 Paris Agreement targets. For both the 2 °C and 1.5 °C scenarios, the magnitude of exceedance of the climate budget is 5.2 and 7.3 times more than the acceptable limit, correspondingly. These findings suggest that the sector will need to undergo a significant transition in order to fulfil the 2050 Paris Agreement targets. In the meanwhile, the sector’s upcoming policies and regulations must be achievable while progressing toward achieving net-zero carbon emissions.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2075-5309
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/buildings12030290
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2661539-3
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  • 5
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Structural Performance of Cold-Formed Steel Face-to-Face Built-Up Channel Sections under Axial Compression at High Temperatures through Finite Element Modelling
    MDPI AG ; 2023
    In:  Buildings Vol. 13, No. 2 ( 2023-01-19), p. 305-
    Details
    In: Buildings, MDPI AG, Vol. 13, No. 2 ( 2023-01-19), p. 305-
    Abstract: This paper studies the structural performance of cold-formed steel (CFS) face-to-face (FTF) built-up channel sections subjected to axial compression at high temperatures. The material properties of G250 and G450 CFS channel sections at room and high temperatures were acquired from the literature, and the range of temperatures was from 20 to 700 °C. The influences of the section thickness, member length, screw number, and high temperature on the structural performance of such channel sections were examined via a comprehensive parametric analysis involving 576 validated finite element models. As the temperature increased from 20 to 700 °C, the mean axial capacity of the CFS-FTF built-up unlipped and lipped channel sections decreased by 88.9% and 90.2%, respectively. Based on the results of the parametric study, new design equations for the axial capacity of CFS-FTF built-up channel sections at high temperatures were proposed. The mean ratio of the EWM strengths calculated using the American standard (AISI 2016) and Australian/New Zealand standard (AS/NZS 2018) to the FE strengths was 0.77, while the mean ratio of the proposed design strengths to the FE strengths was 1.01. Finally, a reliability analysis was conducted, and it was found that the proposed equations could come close in predicting the axial capacity of CFS-FTF built-up channel sections at high temperatures.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2075-5309
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/buildings13020305
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2661539-3
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  • 6
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Improving Sustainability of Steel Roofs: Life Cycle Assessment of a Case Study Roof
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Applied Sciences Vol. 12, No. 12 ( 2022-06-10), p. 5943-
    Details
    In: Applied Sciences, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 12 ( 2022-06-10), p. 5943-
    Abstract: In New Zealand (NZ), steel roofing is the most common roofing type for residential buildings. However, the environmental impact of steel roofs are not negligible. Steel roofs account for up to 30% of the upfront embodied carbon for a typical NZ house, highlighting the importance of investigating and reducing the environmental impacts of steel roofs in meeting the net-zero carbon goal of the NZ government. There are several research gaps in investigating the impacts of steel roofs, such as the variation in emissions between local and imported steel coil products, the unavailability of life cycle assessment (LCA) data, and additional impacts from ancillary items. Therefore, this study performed an LCA of a case study roof in NZ to investigate these gaps using GaBi Ts software. It was found that the overall impacts from the steel roofs, including the ancillary items, were 12 kg CO2-eq/m2, where the ancillary items accounted for less than 10% of total emissions. The prepainted steel coils manufactured globally had less than 70% emissions when compared to the emissions of locally manufactured prepainted steel coils. In addition, the roll forming processes had an insignificant effect on overall emissions, whereas the transportation of steel coils had a notable impact.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2076-3417
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/app12125943
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2704225-X
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  • 7
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    End-One-Flange Web Crippling Behavior of Cold-Formed High-Strength Steel Channels with Web Holes at Elevated Temperatures
    MDPI AG ; 2023
    In:  Buildings Vol. 13, No. 2 ( 2023-01-17), p. 266-
    Details
    In: Buildings, MDPI AG, Vol. 13, No. 2 ( 2023-01-17), p. 266-
    Abstract: This paper investigates the web crippling strength of cold-formed high-strength steel (CHS) channels with centered web holes subjected to end-one-flange (EOF) loading at elevated temperatures, considering both flanges fastened and unfastened to load plates conditions. The stress-strain curve and material properties for CHS (S690QL steel grade) channels were adopted from the literature, where the temperatures ranged from 20 to 800 °C. The material characteristics were incorporated into finite element (FE) models using ABAQUS. The developed FE model was then validated against the published test results to evaluate the effects of various parameters including web hole diameter, bearing length, cross-section sizes, and flange fastening conditions of such channels at elevated temperatures, and a comprehensive parametric investigation including a total of 1710 validated finite element models was performed. From the parametric study results, it was found that the web crippling strength reduction factor is sensitive to the changes of the hole size and the bearing length, with the parameters of hole size having the largest effect on the web crippling reduction factor; however, the web crippling strength reduction factor remains stable when the temperature is changed from 20 to 800 °C. According to the FEA results, new reliable web crippling strength reduction factor equations for such CHS channels were proposed. In the comparison of proposed design strengths to the numerical failure load, the proposed design equations are suitable to predict the web crippling strength for CHS channels subject to EOF loading at ambient and elevated temperatures.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2075-5309
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/buildings13020266
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2661539-3
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  • 8
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Numerical Simulation and Design Recommendations for Web Crippling Strength of Cold-Formed Steel Channels with Web Holes under Interior-One-Flange Loading at Elevated Temperatures
    MDPI AG ; 2021
    In:  Buildings Vol. 11, No. 12 ( 2021-12-20), p. 666-
    Details
    In: Buildings, MDPI AG, Vol. 11, No. 12 ( 2021-12-20), p. 666-
    Abstract: This paper investigates the interior-one-flange web crippling strength of cold-formed steel channels at elevated temperatures. The stress-strain curves of G250 and G450 grade cold-formed steel (CFS) channels at ambient and elevated temperatures were taken from the literature and the temperatures were varied from 20 to 700 °C. A detailed parametric analysis comprising 3474 validated finite element models was undertaken to investigate the effects of web holes and bearing length on the web crippling behavior of these channels at elevated temperatures. From the parametric study results, it was found that the web crippling strength reduction factor is sensitive to the changes of the hole size, hole location, and the bearing length, with the parameters of hole size and hole location having the largest effect on the web crippling reduction factor. However, the web crippling strength reduction factor remains stable when the temperature is changed from 20 to 700 °C. Based on the parametric analysis results, the web crippling strength reduction factors for both ambient and elevated temperatures are proposed, which outperformed the equations available in the literature and in the design guidelines of American standard (AISI S100-16) and Australian/New Zealand standard (AS/NZS 4600:2018) for ambient temperatures. Then, a reliability analysis was conducted, the results of which showed that the proposed design equations could closely predict the reduced web crippling strength of CFS channel sections under interior-one-flange loading conditions at elevated temperatures.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2075-5309
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/buildings11120666
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2661539-3
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  • 9
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    A Comparative Study on the Life Cycle Assessment of New Zealand Residential Buildings
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Buildings Vol. 12, No. 1 ( 2022-01-06), p. 50-
    Details
    In: Buildings, MDPI AG, Vol. 12, No. 1 ( 2022-01-06), p. 50-
    Abstract: In New Zealand, housing is typically low density, with light timber framing being the dominant form of construction with more than 90% of the market. From 2020, as a result of the global pandemic, there was a shortage of timber in New Zealand, resulting in increased popularity for light steel framing, the main alternative to timber for housing. At the same time, the New Zealand government is committed to sustainability practises through legislation and frameworks, such as the reduction of whole-of-life carbon emissions for the building industry. New Zealand recently announced reducing its net greenhouse gas emissions by 50% within 2030. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects associated with a product over its life cycle. Despite the popularity of LCA in the construction industry of New Zealand, prior research results seem varied. There is no unified NZ context database to perform an LCA for buildings. Therefore, in this paper, a comprehensive study using LCA was conducted to quantify and compare the quantity of carbon emissions from two commonly designed houses in the Auckland region, one built from light timber and the other from light steel, both designed for a lifespan of 90 years. The cradle-to-cradle system boundary was used for the LCA. From the results of this study, it was found that the light steel house had 12.3% more carbon in total (including embodied and operational carbons) when compared to the light timber house, of which the manufacturing of two houses had a difference of 50.4% in terms of carbon emissions. However, when the end-of-life (EOL) analysis was included, it was found that the extra carbon could be offset due to the steel’s recyclability, reducing the amount of embodied carbon in the manufacturing process. Therefore, there was no significant difference in carbon emissions between the light steel and the light timber building, with the difference being only 12.3%.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 2075-5309
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/buildings12010050
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2661539-3
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  • 10
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    A State of the Art Review of Fillet Welded Joints
    MDPI AG ; 2022
    In:  Materials Vol. 15, No. 24 ( 2022-12-07), p. 8743-
    Details
    In: Materials, MDPI AG, Vol. 15, No. 24 ( 2022-12-07), p. 8743-
    Abstract: Fillet welded joints are commonly used in steel structures for various engineering applications such as buildings, bridges, railways, ships, and marine structures. Fillet welded joints are generally subjected to static and fatigue loading, resulting in failures of such welded joints. A number of experimental and numerical investigations on the strength and failure behaviour of fillet welded joints have been published. This paper presents a comprehensive review of research results on the static strength, fatigue life, and thermal performance of fillet welded joints. The review covers the various influential factors, such as loading direction, weld geometry, grades of steel, filler materials, welding process, weld penetration, strength mismatch of weld metal, and post-welded treatment. In total, 100 papers were critically reviewed, which were published from 1970 till date. The key findings and research developments on fillet welded joints are summarised. It was found that the transverse fillet welded joints have a higher static strength than the longitudinal fillet welded joints. Filler materials, post-welded treatment, and penetration of weld metal can offer significant strength enhancements in terms of their static and fatigue strength. Lastly, research gaps have been found in the existing body of knowledge, which will help guide future research.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 1996-1944
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.3390/ma15248743
    Language: English
    Publisher: MDPI AG
    Publication Date: 2022
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2487261-1
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