Note: Intro -- Contents -- Acknowledgments -- How to Use This Book -- Introduction -- Ecoregions of Texas -- Wildflowers -- Trees -- Shrubs -- Vines -- Appendix -- Glossary of Botanical Terms -- References -- Native Host Plant Index -- Butterfly Index.

Note: Cover -- Beginning of text.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- Contents (cont.) -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- How to Use This Book -- January -- Undaunted Ungulates -- Fragmented Forests -- Leave It to Beavers -- Clever Corvids -- February -- Roving Ringtails -- Ancient Art -- Furtive Felines -- A Plethora of Pteridophytes -- March -- Lanky Lupines -- Causing a Stink -- Return of the Wanderer -- Lilies in the Desert -- April -- Bear Aware -- Chasing Colimas -- Spiny Succulents -- Beautiful Buntings -- May -- Splitting Hares -- Scutes and Scales -- A Parliament of Owls -- Armored Anthropods -- June -- A Sense of Place -- Riparian Raptors -- Amorous Anurans -- Damsels and Dragons -- July -- Century Plants -- Borderland Bats -- Lubbers and Quonkers -- Ephemeral Oases -- August -- Hummingbird Haven -- Wild Woodland Orchids -- Jeweled Nightwings -- Traveling Tarantulas -- September -- A Mariposa Medley -- High-Country Wildflowers -- Aridland Aves -- A Lounge of Lizards -- October -- Common Columbids -- Fish So Fragile -- Shadow Tails -- Likin' Lichens -- November -- Coyote Courtship -- Autumn Blaze -- Splendid Sparrows -- Texastronomy -- December -- Fossiliferous -- A Descent of Woodpeckers -- Telltale Tracks -- Wintry Wonders -- References -- Index.

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- А System for Monitoring the Number and Duration of Power Outages and Power Quality in 0.38 kV Electrical Networks -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Materials and Methods -- 3 Results -- 4 Discussions -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- A Novel Application of System Survival Signature in Reliability Assessment of Offshore Structures -- 1 Introduction -- 2 The Survival Signature -- 2.1 System Reliability Applying the Survival Signature -- 2.2 Obtaining the Survival Signature from Structural Simulations -- 3 Reliability of an Offshore Jacket Platform -- 3.1 Structural Model -- 3.2 Generation of Failure Tress -- 3.3 CDF of Component Types -- 4 Summary -- References -- Security Assurance Against Cybercrime Ransomware -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Background -- 3 Study of Ransomware -- 3.1 Types of Ransomware -- 3.2 Activities of Ransomware -- 4 WannaCry Ransomware -- 5 From Security to Safety -- 5.1 Insufficient Security Measures -- 5.2 Genesis -- 5.3 Security Assurance -- 5.4 Theoretical Basis for High Assurance Framework -- 6 Conclusion and Future Direction -- References -- SAR: A Graph-Based System with Text Stream Burst Detection and Visualization -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Work -- 2.1 Document Stream -- 2.2 Burst Detection -- 3 System Design -- 3.1 Context Introduction -- 4 System Architecture -- 4.1 System Algorithm -- 5 Experimental Results and Evaluation -- 5.1 Programming Framework -- 5.2 Main Functions -- 6 System Testing and Evaluation -- 7 Conclusion and Future Work -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Detection of Black Hole Attacks in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks via HSA-CBDS Method -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Work -- 3 Proposed Work -- 4 Results and Discussion -- 5 Conclusions -- Acknowledgements -- References. , Network Intrusion Detection Framework Based on Whale Swarm Algorithm and Artificial Neural Network in Cloud Computing -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Proposed Framework -- 2.1 Bubble-Net Attacking Method (Exploitation Phase) -- 2.2 Searching for Prey (Exploration Phase) -- 3 Classifier Design -- 3.1 BFGS Quasi-Newton Backpropagation -- 4 Model for N-IDS In-Eucalyptus Cloud Computing -- 5 Classifier Process in MATLAB -- 6 Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- The 'Smart' as a Project for the City Smart Technologies for Territorial Management Planning Strategies -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Intelligent Urban Mobility in the Smart City -- 3 The Case Study: Smart Mobility in the City Center of Rome -- 4 Experience of Using Smart Mobility in Rome -- 5 Smart Mobility for Urban Regeneration -- 6 Conclusions -- References -- The 'Governance' for Smart City Strategies and Territorial Planning -- Abstract -- 1 "Territorial Planning" as a Premise of the Smart City -- 2 The Smart City as a New City Model -- 3 Governance (Democracy, Technology, Technocracy) -- References -- T-MPP: A Novel Topic-Driven Meta-path-Based Approach for Co-authorship Prediction in Large-Scale Content-Based Heterogeneous Bibliographic Network in Distributed Computing Framework by Spark -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Works and Motivations -- 3 Methodology and System Architecture -- 3.1 Topic Similarity Evaluation Between Content-Based Nodes -- 3.2 Topic-Driven Meta-path-Based Topological Feature Extraction -- 3.3 Distributed Computing on Meta-path Count with Spark Graph-Frames -- 4 Experimental Studies and Discussions -- 4.1 Experimental Dataset Usage and Setup -- 4.2 Experimental Results and Discussions -- 5 Conclusion and Future Work -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Optimization of Hybrid Wind and Solar Renewable Energy System by Iteration Method. , 1 Introduction -- 2 Optimization Formulation -- 3 Constraints -- 4 Iterative Method -- 4.1 Numerical Datasets -- 5 Results -- 6 Conclusion -- References -- Modeling of Solar Photovoltaic Thermal Modules -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Method for Creating Three-Dimensional Models of Solar Photovoltaic Thermal Modules of Various Designs for Stationary and Mobile Power Generation -- 3 Implementation of the Method for Creating Three-Dimensional Models of Solar Photovoltaic Thermal Modules -- 4 Method of the Thermal Calculation of the Photovoltaic Thermal Solar Modules of Planar and Concentrator Types Using Simulation and Visualization of Processes in the Software Complex Ansys -- 5 Method of Manufacturing of Three-Dimensional Solid-State Prototypes of Components of Solar Modules Using Layered Printing -- References -- Thermo Physical Principles of Cogeneration Technology with Concentration of Solar Radiation -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods and Calculations -- 2.1 Design of the Load-Bearing Platform -- 2.2 Optical Concentrators -- 2.3 Linear PV Modules -- 3 Conclusions -- References -- Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm for Solving the Knight's Tour Problem -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Background and Knowledge -- 2.1 Knight's Tour Problem -- 2.2 Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm -- 3 Solving the Knight's Tour Problem by Using ABC -- 4 Experimental Settings and Results -- 5 Conclusions -- References -- The Model of Optimization of Grain Drying with Use of Eletroactivated Air -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Main Part -- 2.1 Research Method -- 2.2 Calculation of Criteria -- 2.3 Laboratory Setup -- 3 Conclusions -- References -- Model of Improved a Kernel Fast Learning Network Based on Intrusion Detection System -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Overview of Fast Learning Network -- 3 Overview of the Methodology -- 3.1 Fast Learning Network. , 3.2 Kernel Fast Learning Network -- 3.3 Particle Swarm Optimization -- 4 Experiments and Analysis -- 4.1 Implementing of Multi Kernel Based on Fast Learning Network -- 4.2 Experiments of Optimization Multi Kernel Fast Learning Network -- 5 Summary -- References -- Vehicular Ad Hoc Network: An Intensive Review -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 VANET Architecture -- 1.2 VANET Application -- 1.3 VANET Infrastructure -- 2 VANET Security and Privacy -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- Optimization of the Parameters of the Elastic Damping Mechanism in Class 1,4 Tractor Transmission for Work in the Main Agricultural Operations -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Main Part -- 3 Conclusions -- References -- Energy-Efficient Pasteurizer of Liquid Products Using IR and UV Radiation -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Methods and Results of Research -- 2.1 Method of Calculation of Pasteurizer -- 2.2 Experimental Data -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- CAIAS Simulator: Self-driving Vehicle Simulator for AI Research -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Development of Simulation Engine -- 2.1 Interactive -- 2.2 Kinematic Bicycle Model -- 2.3 Number of Environments -- 2.4 Types and Construction of Sensors -- 2.5 Auxiliary Setting and Other Appliance -- 3 Result -- 3.1 Debugging and Performance Analysis in Unity -- 3.2 Test Result Evaluation from the Performance -- 4 Conclusion -- 4.1 Future Modification for More Robust Result -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Vision-Based Driver's Attention Monitoring System for Smart Vehicles -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Work -- 3 Proposed Framework -- 3.1 Processing -- 3.2 Cues Extraction -- 3.3 Attention Estimation of Driver -- 3.4 Monitoring and Decision Making -- 4 Experimental Results -- 4.1 Accuracy of Estimating Attentional Status -- 4.2 Overall System Accuracy -- 5 Conclusion -- References. , Characterizing Current Features of Malicious Threats on Websites -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Works -- 3 Characteristic Representation -- 3.1 URL Based Features and Classification -- 3.1.1 Features/Attributes of URLs -- 3.2 Content Based Features and Classification -- 3.2.1 Features/Attributes of JavaScript and HTML in Webpages -- 3.3 Network Protocol Features/HTTP Response Features of Suspected Malicious Performed in Webpages -- 4 Conclusion -- Acknowledgement -- References -- A Deep Learning Framework on Generation of Image Descriptions with Bidirectional Recurrent Neural Networks -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Work -- 2.1 Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) -- 2.2 Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) -- 2.3 Proposed Model -- 2.4 Annotation of Dataset -- 3 Methodology -- 4 Evaluation -- 5 Conclusion -- References -- Feature of Operation PV Installations with Parallel and Mixed Commutation Photocells -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Research -- 3 Conclusion -- References -- The Functional Dependencies of the Drying Coefficient for the Use in Modeling of Heat and Moisture-Exchange Processes -- Abstract -- 1 Existing Approaches to Modeling of Grain Drying -- 2 Brief Description of Experimental Studies -- 3 Obtaining Regression Equations -- 4 Conclusions -- References -- Investigation Model for Locating Data Remnants on Cloud Storage -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Related Work -- 3 Cybercrime Evidence Collection Model -- 4 Experiment Results and Analysis -- 4.1 Box Cloud Base Images Created by Firefox Browser -- 4.2 Evidence Directories -- 4.3 Anti-forensic Techniques and Uninstallation of Box Client Software -- 4.4 Comparative Evaluation -- 5 Conclusion and Future Works -- Acknowledgements -- References -- An Intelligent Expert System for Management Information System Failure Diagnosis -- Abstract -- 1 Introduction. , 2 Theoretical Foundations.

Note: Cover -- Half-Title Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- 1. Why and Where Uncertainties -- 1.1. Sources and forms of uncertainty -- 1.2. Types of uncertainty -- 1.3. Sources of uncertainty -- 1.4. Conclusion -- 2. Models and Language of Uncertainty -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Probability theory -- 2.2.1. Interpretations -- 2.2.2. Fundamental notions -- 2.2.3. Discussion -- 2.3. Belief functions theory -- 2.3.1. Representation of beliefs -- 2.3.2. Combination rules -- 2.3.3. Extension and marginalization -- 2.3.4. Pignistic transformation -- 2.3.5. Discussion -- 2.4. Fuzzy set theory -- 2.4.1. Basic definitions -- 2.4.2. Operations on fuzzy sets -- 2.4.3. Fuzzy relations -- 2.5. Fuzzy arithmetic -- 2.5.1. Fuzzy numbers -- 2.5.2. Fuzzy probabilities -- 2.5.3. Discussion -- 2.6. Possibility theory -- 2.6.1. Definitions -- 2.6.2. Possibility and necessity measures -- 2.6.3. Operations on possibility and necessity measures -- 2.7. Random set theory -- 2.7.1. Basic definitions -- 2.7.2. Expectation of random sets -- 2.7.3. Random intervals -- 2.7.4. Confidence interval -- 2.7.5. Discussion -- 2.8. Confidence structures or c-boxes -- 2.8.1. Basic notions -- 2.8.2. Confidence distributions -- 2.8.3. P-boxes and C-boxes -- 2.8.4. Discussion -- 2.9. Imprecise probability theory -- 2.9.1. Definitions -- 2.9.2. Basic properties -- 2.9.3. Discussion -- 2.10. Conclusion -- 3. Risk Graphs and Risk Matrices: Application of Fuzzy Sets and Belief Reasoning -- 3.1. SIL allocation scheme -- 3.1.1. Safety instrumented systems (SIS) -- 3.1.2. Conformity to standards ANSI/ISA S84.01-1996 and IEC 61508 -- 3.1.3. Taxonomy of risk/SIL assessment methods -- 3.1.4. Risk assessment -- 3.1.5. SIL allocation process -- 3.1.6. The use of experts' opinions -- 3.2. SIL allocation based on possibility theory. , 3.2.1. Eliciting the experts' opinions -- 3.2.2. Rating scales for parameters -- 3.2.3. Subjective elicitation of the risk parameters -- 3.2.4. Calibration of experts' opinions -- 3.2.5. Aggregation of the opinions -- 3.3. Fuzzy risk graph -- 3.3.1. Input fuzzy partition and fuzzification -- 3.3.2. Risk/SIL graph logic by fuzzy inference system -- 3.3.3. Output fuzzy partition and defuzzification -- 3.3.4. Illustration case -- 3.4. Risk/SIL graph: belief functions reasoning -- 3.4.1. Elicitation of expert opinions in the belief functions theory -- 3.4.2. Aggregation of expert opinions -- 3.5. Evidential risk graph -- 3.6. Numerical illustration -- 3.6.1. Clustering of experts' opinions -- 3.6.2. Aggregation of preferences -- 3.6.3. Evidential risk/SIL graph -- 3.7. Conclusion -- 4. Dependability Assessment Considering Interval-valued Probabilities -- 4.1. Interval arithmetic -- 4.1.1. Interval-valued parameters -- 4.2. Constraint arithmetic -- 4.3. Fuzzy arithmetic -- 4.3.1. Application example -- 4.3.2. Monte Carlo sampling approach -- 4.4. Discussion -- 4.4.1. Markov chains -- 4.4.2. Multiphase Markov chains -- 4.4.3. Markov chains with fuzzy numbers -- 4.4.4. Fuzzy modeling of SIS characteristic parameters -- 4.5. Illustration -- 4.5.1. Epistemic approach -- 4.5.2. Enhanced Markov analysis -- 4.6. Decision-making under uncertainty -- 4.7. Conclusion -- 5. Evidential Networks -- 5.1. Main concepts -- 5.1.1. Temporal dimension -- 5.1.2. Computing believe and plausibility measures as bounds -- 5.1.3. Inference -- 5.1.4. Modeling imprecision and ignorance in nodes -- 5.1.5. Conclusion -- 5.2. Evidential Network to model and compute Fuzzy probabilities -- 5.2.1. Fuzzy probability and basic probability assignment -- 5.2.2. Nested interval-valued probabilities to fuzzy probability -- 5.2.3. Computation mechanism. , 5.3. Evidential Networks to compute p-box -- 5.3.1. Connection between p-boxes and BPA -- 5.3.2. P-boxes and interval-valued probabilities -- 5.3.3. P-boxes and precise probabilities -- 5.3.4. Time-dependent p-boxes -- 5.3.5. Computation mechanism -- 5.4. Modeling some reliability problems -- 5.4.1. BPA for reliability problems -- 5.4.2. Building Boolean CMT (AND, OR) -- 5.4.3. Conditional mass table for more than two inputs (k-out-of-n:G gate) -- 5.4.4. Nodes for Pls and Bel in the binary case -- 5.4.5. Modeling reliability with p-boxes -- 5.5. Illustration by application of Evidential Networks -- 5.5.1. Reliability assessment of system -- 5.5.2. Inference for failure isolation -- 5.5.3. Assessing the fuzzy reliability of systems -- 5.5.4. Assessing the p-box reliability by EN -- 5.6. Conclusion -- 6. Reliability Uncertainty and Importance Factors -- 6.1. Introduction -- 6.2. Hypothesis and notation -- 6.3. Probabilistic importance measures of components -- 6.3.1. Birnbaum importance measure -- 6.3.2. Component criticality measure -- 6.3.3. Diagnostic importance measure -- 6.3.4. Reliability achievement worth (RAW) -- 6.3.5. Reliability reduction worth (RRW) -- 6.3.6. Observations and limitations -- 6.3.7. Importance measures computation -- 6.4. Probabilistic importance measures of pairs and groups of components -- 6.4.1. Measures on minimum cutsets/pathsets/groups -- 6.4.2. Extension of RAW and RRW to pairs -- 6.4.3. Joint reliability importance factor (JR) -- 6.5. Uncertainty importance measures -- 6.5.1. Uncertainty probabilistic importance measures -- 6.5.2. Importance factors with imprecision -- 6.6. Importance measures with fuzzy probabilities -- 6.6.1. Fuzzy importance measures -- 6.6.2. Fuzzy uncertainty measures -- 6.7. Illustration -- 6.7.1. Importance factors on a simple system -- 6.7.2. Importance factors in a complex case. , 6.7.3. Illustration of group importance measures -- 6.7.4. Uncertainty importance factors -- 6.7.5. Fuzzy importance measures -- 6.8. Conclusion -- Conclusion -- Bibliography -- Index -- Other titles from iSTE in Systems and Industrial Engineering - Robotics -- EULA.

Note: Literaturverzeichnis: Seite 121-125 , Förderkennzeichen AiF-Nr. 18560 N , Ausdruck der Online-Ressource. - Erzeugt aus: http://www.fg-kalk-moertel.de/forschungsberichte.html , Unterschiede zwischen dem gedruckten Dokument und der elektronischen Ressource können nicht ausgeschlossen werden

Note: Förderkennzeichen BMWi RS 1546 , Literaturverzeichnis: Seite 183-191 , Kurzfassung in deutscher und englischer Sprache

Note: Literaturverzeichnis: Seite 11-12

Note: Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Part I: Introduction -- Chapter 1: Biological Soil Crusts as an Organizing Principle in Drylands -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Biocrusts as an Organizing Principle, and the Critical Zone, in Deserts -- 1.3 Under-Examined Roles of Biocrusts in Dryland Ecosystems -- 1.3.1 Islands of Fertility or Oceans of Depletion? -- 1.3.2 Biocrusts as the Transformative Zone -- 1.3.3 Biocrusts Structuring Vascular Plant Communities -- 1.3.4 Biocrusts Creating Biodiversity Hotspots in Drylands -- 1.3.5 Challenging the Definition of Lichen Individuals and the Boundary Between Being Heterotrophic and Autotrophic -- 1.4 Can Biocrusts Be Used as a Vital Sign of Ecosystem Health? -- 1.5 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: How Biological Soil Crusts Became Recognized as a Functional Unit: A Selective History -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Two Lines that Lead to the Recognition of Biocrusts -- 2.2.1 The Floristic, Botanic Approach -- 2.2.1.1 Lichens -- 2.2.1.2 Bryophytes -- 2.2.1.3 Cyanobacteria and Green Algae -- 2.2.2 The Soil/Agronomy Scientific Approach -- 2.3 Biological Soil Crusts as a Functional Ecological Unit -- References -- Part II: Morphology, Composition, and Distribution of Biological Soil Crusts at Different Scales -- Chapter 3: Terrestrial Ecosystems in the Precambrian -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Paleosols -- 3.3 Microfossils -- 3.4 Sedimentary Biostructures -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4: Cyanobacteria and Algae of Biological Soil Crusts -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Cyanobacterial and Eukaryotic Algal Diversity -- 4.2.1 Role and Diversity of Biocrust Cyanobacteria -- 4.2.2 Role and Diversity of Eukaryotic Algae in Biocrusts -- 4.3 Methodological Aspects -- 4.3.1 Sampling -- 4.3.2 Identification, Cultures, and Morphological Approach -- 4.3.3 Molecular Approaches -- 4.4 Conclusion -- References. , Chapter 5: Bacteria and Non-lichenized Fungi Within Biological Soil Crusts -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Bacterial Biomass and Community Composition -- 5.2.1 Impact of Biocrust Age, Soil, and Vegetation Type on Bacterial Community Structure -- 5.2.2 Manipulation Experiments: Response of Microbial Communities to Disturbance and Differing Light or Soil Temperature Condi... -- 5.2.3 Novel Bacterial Species -- 5.3 Non-lichenized Fungi -- 5.4 Lichens as Microbial ``Hubs´´ -- 5.4.1 Life Strategies and Diversity of Lichenicolous Fungi -- 5.4.2 Bacterial Habitats in Soil Lichens -- 5.4.3 The Impact of Lichenicolous Fungi on the Lichen-Associated Bacterial Community -- 5.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6: Bryophytes Within Biological Soil Crusts -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Bryophyte Diversity in Biocrusts -- 6.2.1 Regional Diversity -- 6.2.2 Global Moss Diversity -- 6.2.3 Global Liverwort Diversity -- 6.3 Bryophyte Establishment in Biocrusts -- 6.3.1 Establishment in Dryland Biocrusts -- 6.3.2 Establishment in Polar, Alpine, and Antarctic Biocrusts -- 6.4 The Role of Substrate in Bryophyte Abundance and Diversity -- 6.4.1 Calcareous Substrates -- 6.4.2 Dolomite and Gypsum Substrates -- 6.4.3 Interactions Between Substrate Chemistry and Aridity -- 6.5 Adaptive Strategies of Biocrust Bryophytes -- 6.6 Biocrust Bryophyte Physiological Ecology -- 6.6.1 Water and Temperature Relations -- 6.6.2 Reproductive Ecology -- 6.6.3 Ecological Roles of Biocrust Bryophytes -- 6.7 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 7: Structure, Composition, and Function of Biocrust Lichen Communities -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Structure and Morphology of Lichen Biocrusts -- 7.2.1 The Importance of Fungal Hyphae -- 7.2.2 The Role of the Lichen Photobiont -- 7.3 Composition of Biocrust Lichens -- 7.3.1 Distribution of Biocrust Lichens. , 7.3.2 Richness and Abundance of Biocrust Lichens -- 7.3.3 Taxonomy and Identification of Biocrust Lichens -- 7.3.4 A Morphospecies Approach to Biocrust Lichen Identification -- 7.4 Functional Roles of Biocrust Lichens -- 7.4.1 Sampling Biocrust Lichen Communities -- 7.5 Lichens in Biocrusts: Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 8: Microfauna Within Biological Soil Crusts -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Who Are the Microfaunal Inhabitants of Biocrusts? -- 8.2.1 Protozoa -- 8.2.2 Nematodes -- 8.2.3 Tardigrades and Rotifers -- 8.2.4 Microarthropods -- 8.3 What Microfauna Do in Soil Crust Ecosystems -- 8.4 When Are Microfauna Active? -- 8.5 Where Are Microfauna Found in Biological Soil Crusts? -- 8.6 How Are Microfauna Affected by Surface Disturbance and Altered Climate? -- 8.7 Future Directions and Research Priorities -- 8.7.1 Feeding Behavior -- 8.7.2 Increased Taxonomic Resolution -- 8.7.3 Ecological Genomics -- 8.8 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 9: Composition and Macrostructure of Biological Soil Crusts -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Abiotic Crust Structure -- 9.3 Biocrust Structure: Biotic Influences -- 9.4 Biocrust Structure: Abiotic Influences -- 9.4.1 Macroclimatic Influences -- 9.4.2 Mechanical Disturbance -- 9.4.3 Pedogenic Influences -- 9.5 Classification of Biocrusts -- 9.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10: Controls on Distribution Patterns of Biological Soil Crusts at Micro- to Global Scales -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.1.1 Nomenclature for Scale -- 10.2 Determinants of Biocrust Distribution at Different Spatial Scales -- 10.2.1 Biogeographic Factors -- 10.2.2 Moisture Availability -- 10.2.3 Moisture Mode, Seasonality, and Temperature Effects -- 10.2.4 Soil Properties -- 10.2.5 Solar Radiation Load -- 10.2.6 Vegetation Cover and Spatial Patterns -- 10.2.7 Geomorphological Features. , 10.3 The Emerging Understanding of Ecoregional Biocrust Distribution in Three Case Studies -- 10.3.1 Case Study: Ecoregional Patterns in the Sahel (Africa) -- 10.3.2 Case Study: Ecoregional Patterns on the Colorado Plateau (USA) -- 10.3.3 Case Study: Ecoregional Patterns in the Mojave Desert (USA) -- 10.4 Conclusions: Gaps in Our Knowledge and the Way Forward -- References -- Chapter 11: Hypolithic Communities -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 The Hypolithic Habitat -- 11.3 Biodiversity and Biogeography -- 11.4 Patterns of Hypolith Cover -- 11.5 Biotic Interactions -- 11.6 Biogeochemical Transformations -- 11.7 Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 12: Remote Sensing of Biological Soil Crusts at Different Scales -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Reflectance Spectroscopy of Biocrusts -- 12.2.1 Spectral Reflectance Characteristics of Biocrusts -- 12.2.1.1 Different Types of Biocrusts -- 12.2.1.2 Continuum Removal -- 12.2.2 Effects of Watering -- 12.2.3 Effects of Disturbance on the Spectral Characteristics of Biocrusts -- 12.2.4 Spectral Indicators -- 12.2.5 Spectral Characteristics Related to CO2 Gas Exchange -- 12.3 Mapping the Spatial Distribution of Biocrusts -- 12.3.1 Image Preprocessing -- 12.3.2 Spectral Indices -- 12.3.3 Biocrusts as an Element of Complex Spectral Mixtures -- 12.3.4 Temporal Variability -- 12.4 Conclusion -- References -- Part III: Functional Roles of Biological Soil Crusts -- Chapter 13: Microstructure and Weathering Processes Within Biological Soil Crusts -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Microstructure of Biological Soil Crusts -- 13.2.1 Physical Microstructure -- 13.2.2 Small-Scale Spatial Structure of Biological Components -- 13.3 Temporal Dynamics: Biological Succession, Structural Maturation, and Weathering -- 13.3.1 Biological Succession -- 13.3.2 Structural Development -- 13.3.3 Weathering and Geochemical Alteration. , 13.4 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 14: Patterns and Controls on Nitrogen Cycling of Biological Soil Crusts -- 14.1 Introduction to Nitrogen Cycling in Biocrusts -- 14.2 Biocrust Nitrogen Fixation -- 14.2.1 Studies Measuring Nitrogen Fixation Using the ARA Method -- 14.2.2 Natural 15N Abundance -- 14.2.3 Estimates of Annual Biocrust N Fixation -- 14.3 Nitrogen Release to the Surrounding Substrate -- 14.4 Biocrust Influence on Soil Inorganic Nitrogen -- 14.5 Nitrogen Gas Losses from Biocrusts and Biocrusted Soils -- 14.6 Regulation of Biocrust Nitrogen Transfer in Wind and Water -- 14.7 Ecosystem Nitrogen Budgets -- 14.8 Summary of Biocrust N Cycling -- 14.9 Research Challenges -- References -- Chapter 15: Carbon Budgets of Biological Soil Crusts at Micro-, Meso-, and Global Scales -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 The Microscale: Individual Organism Performance -- 15.2.1 Proposed Methodologies on the Microscale -- 15.2.2 Available Datasets on the Microscale -- 15.2.3 Modeling on the Microscale -- 15.3 The Mesoscale: Net Ecosystem Exchange in Biocrusted Soils -- 15.3.1 Available Datasets on the Mesoscale -- 15.4 The Macroscale: Global Carbon Budgets -- 15.5 General Future Research Needs and Directions -- References -- Chapter 16: Biological Soil Crusts as Soil Stabilizers -- 16.1 Introduction -- 16.2 Biocrust Characteristics that Confer Resistance and Resilience to Soil Erosion -- 16.2.1 Species and Biocrust Developmental Stages Affect Resistance to Wind and Water Erosion -- 16.2.2 Individual Species Affect Resistance to Soil Loss -- 16.2.3 Developmental Stage Affects Resistance to Soil Loss -- 16.2.4 Antecedent Moisture Affects Resistance to Soil Loss -- 16.3 Disturbance to Biocrusts Reduces Resistance to Soil Loss -- 16.4 Nutrient Loss with Erosion -- 16.5 Soil Movement at the Local to Global Scale -- 16.6 Future Research -- References. , Chapter 17: The Role of Biocrusts in Arid Land Hydrology.

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