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  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Saturation of the internal tide over the inner continental shelf. Part II: Parameterization
    American Meteorological Society ; 2021
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography ( 2021-06-02)
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, ( 2021-06-02)
    Abstract: Here, we develop a framework for understanding the observations presented in the accompanying paper (Part I) by Becherer et al. (2021). In this framework, the internal tide saturates as it shoals due to amplitude limitation with decreasing water depth ( H ). From this framework evolves estimates of averaged energetics of the internal tide; specifically, energy, 〈 APE 〉, energy flux, 〈 F E 〉, and energy flux divergence, ∂ x 〈 F E 〉. Since we observe that 〈 D 〉 ≈ ∂ x 〈 F E 〉, we also interpret our estimate of ∂ x 〈 F E 〉 as 〈 D 〉. These estimates represent a parameterization of the energy in the internal tide as it saturates over the inner continental shelf. The parameterization depends solely on depth-mean stratification and bathymetry. A summary result is that the cross-shelf depth dependencies of 〈 APE 〉, 〈 F E 〉 and ∂ x 〈 F E 〉 are analogous to those for shoaling surface gravity waves in the surf zone, suggesting that the inner shelf is the surf zone for the internal tide . A test of our simple parameterization against a range of data sets suggests that it is broadly applicable.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-21-0047.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 2
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Turbulence Asymmetries in Bottom Boundary Layer Velocity Pulses Associated with Onshore-Propagating Nonlinear Internal Waves
    American Meteorological Society ; 2020
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography Vol. 50, No. 8 ( 2020-08-01), p. 2373-2391
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 50, No. 8 ( 2020-08-01), p. 2373-2391
    Abstract: The inner shelf is a region inshore of that part of the shelf that roughly obeys Ekman dynamics and offshore of the surf zone. Importantly, this is where surface and bottom boundary layers are in close proximity, overlap, and interact. The internal tide carries a substantial amount of energy into the inner shelf region were it eventually dissipates and contributes to mixing. A part of this energy transformation is due to a complex interaction with the bottom, where distinctions between nonlinear internal waves of depression and elevation are blurred, indeed, where polarity reversals of incoming waves take place. From an intensive set of measurements over the inner shelf off central California, we identify salient differences between onshore pulses from waves with properties of elevation waves and offshore pulses from shallowing depression waves. While the velocity structures and amplitudes of on/offshore pulses 1 m above the seafloor are not detectably different, onshore pulses are both more energetically turbulent and carry more sediments than offshore pulses. Their turbulence is also oppositely skewed: onshore pulses slightly to the leading edges, offshore pulses to the trailing edges of the pulses. We consider in turn three independent mechanisms that may contribute to the observed asymmetry: propagation in adverse pressure gradients and the resultant inflection point instability, residence time of a fluid parcel in the pulse, and turbulence suppression by stratification. The first mechanism may largely explain higher turbulence in the trailing edge of offshore pulses. The extended residence time may be responsible for the high and more uniform turbulence distribution across onshore compared to offshore pulses. Stratification does not play a leading role in turbulence modification inside of the pulses 1 m above the bed.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-19-0178.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2020
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 3
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Saturation of the internal tide over the inner continental shelf. Part I: Observations
    American Meteorological Society ; 2021
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography ( 2021-05-14)
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, ( 2021-05-14)
    Abstract: Broadly-distributed measurements of velocity, density and turbulence spanning the inner shelf off central California indicate that (i) the average shoreward-directed internal tide energy flux (〈 F E 〉) decreases to near 0 at the 25 m isobath; (ii) the vertically-integrated turbulence dissipation rate (〈 D 〉) is approximately equal to the flux divergence of internal tide energy ( ∂ x 〈 F E 〉); (iii) the ratio of turbulence energy dissipation in the interior relative to the bottom boundary layer (BBL) decreases toward shallow waters; (iv) going inshore, 〈 F E 〉 becomes decorrelated with the incoming internal wave energy flux; and (v) 〈 F E 〉 becomes increasingly correlated with stratification toward shallower water.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-20-0264.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 4
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    Online Resource
    The Inner-Shelf Dynamics Experiment
    American Meteorological Society ; 2021
    In:  Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Vol. 102, No. 5 ( 2021-05), p. E1033-E1063
    Details
    In: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 102, No. 5 ( 2021-05), p. E1033-E1063
    Abstract: The inner shelf, the transition zone between the surfzone and the midshelf, is a dynamically complex region with the evolution of circulation and stratification driven by multiple physical processes. Cross-shelf exchange through the inner shelf has important implications for coastal water quality, ecological connectivity, and lateral movement of sediment and heat. The Inner-Shelf Dynamics Experiment (ISDE) was an intensive, coordinated, multi-institution field experiment from September–October 2017, conducted from the midshelf, through the inner shelf, and into the surfzone near Point Sal, California. Satellite, airborne, shore- and ship-based remote sensing, in-water moorings and ship-based sampling, and numerical ocean circulation models forced by winds, waves, and tides were used to investigate the dynamics governing the circulation and transport in the inner shelf and the role of coastline variability on regional circulation dynamics. Here, the following physical processes are highlighted: internal wave dynamics from the midshelf to the inner shelf; flow separation and eddy shedding off Point Sal; offshore ejection of surfzone waters from rip currents; and wind-driven subtidal circulation dynamics. The extensive dataset from ISDE allows for unprecedented investigations into the role of physical processes in creating spatial heterogeneity, and nonlinear interactions between various inner-shelf physical processes. Overall, the highly spatially and temporally resolved oceanographic measurements and numerical simulations of ISDE provide a central framework for studies exploring this complex and fascinating region of the ocean.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-0007 , 1520-0477
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/BAMS-D-19-0281.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2021
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2029396-3
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 419957-1
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  • 5
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    Online Resource
    Observations of Shoaling Nonlinear Internal Bores across the Central California Inner Shelf
    American Meteorological Society ; 2020
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography Vol. 50, No. 1 ( 2020-01), p. 111-132
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 50, No. 1 ( 2020-01), p. 111-132
    Abstract: We present observations of shoaling nonlinear internal bores off the coast of central California. The dataset includes 15 moorings deployed during September–October 2017 and cross-shore shipboard surveys. We describe the cross-shore structure and evolution of large-amplitude internal bores as they transit from 9 km (100-m depth) to 1 km offshore (10 m). We observe that two bores arrive each semidiurnal period, both propagating from the southwest; of the total, 72% are tracked to the 10-m isobath. The bore speeds are subtidally modulated, but there is additional bore-to-bore speed variability that is unexplained by the upstream stratification. We quantify temporal and cross-shore variability of the waveguide (the background conditions through which bores propagate) by calculating the linear longwave nonrotating phase speed c o and using the nonlinearity coefficient of the Korteweg–de Vries equation α as a metric for stratification. Bore fronts are generally steeper when α is positive and are more rarefied when α is negative, and we observe the bore’s leading edge to rarefy from a steep front when α is positive offshore and negative inshore. High-frequency α fluctuations, such as those nearshore driven by wind relaxations, contribute to bore-to-bore variability of the cross-shore evolution during similar subtidal waveguide conditions. We compare observed bore speeds with c o and the rotating group velocities c g , concluding that observed speeds are always faster than c g and are slower than c o at depths greater than 32 m and faster than c o at depths of less than 32 m. The bores maintain a steady speed while transiting into shallower water, contrary to linear estimates that predict bores to slow.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-19-0125.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2020
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 6
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    Online Resource
    Damping of Inertial Motions through the Radiation of Near-Inertial Waves in a Dipole Vortex in the Iceland Basin
    American Meteorological Society ; 2023
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography Vol. 53, No. 8 ( 2023-08), p. 1821-1833
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 53, No. 8 ( 2023-08), p. 1821-1833
    Abstract: Along with boundary layer turbulence, downward radiation of near-inertial waves (NIWs) damps inertial oscillations (IOs) in the surface ocean; however, the latter can also energize abyssal mixing. Here we present observations made from a dipole vortex in the Iceland Basin where, after the period of direct wind forcing, IOs lost over half their kinetic energy (KE) in two inertial periods to radiation of NIWs with minimal turbulent dissipation of KE. The dipole’s vorticity gradient led to a rapid reduction in the NIW’s lateral wavelength via ζ refraction that was accompanied by isopycnal undulations below the surface mixed layer. Pressure anomalies associated with the undulations were correlated with the NIW’s velocity yielding an energy flux of 310 mW m −2 pointed antiparallel to the vorticity gradient and a downward flux of 1 mW m −2 capable of driving the observed drop in KE. The minimal role of turbulence in the energetics after the IOs had been generated by the winds was confirmed using a large-eddy simulation driven by the observed winds. Significance Statement We report direct observational estimates of the vector wave energy flux of a near-inertial wave. The energy flux points from high to low vorticity in the horizontal, consistent with the theory of ζ refraction. The downward energy flux dominates the observed damping of inertial motions over turbulent dissipation and mixing.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-22-0202.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 7
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    Online Resource
    Wind Dependencies of Deep Cycle Turbulence in the Equatorial Cold Tongues
    American Meteorological Society ; 2023
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography Vol. 53, No. 8 ( 2023-08), p. 1979-1995
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 53, No. 8 ( 2023-08), p. 1979-1995
    Abstract: Several years of moored turbulence measurements from χ pods at three sites in the equatorial cold tongues of Atlantic and Pacific Oceans yield new insights into proxy estimates of turbulence that specifically target the cold tongues. They also reveal previously unknown wind dependencies of diurnally varying turbulence in the near-critical stratified shear layers beneath the mixed layer and above the core of the Equatorial Undercurrent that we have come to understand as deep cycle (DC) turbulence. Isolated by the mixed layer above, the DC layer is only indirectly linked to surface forcing. Yet, it varies diurnally in concert with daily changes in heating/cooling. Diurnal composites computed from 10-min averaged data at fixed χ pod depths show that transitions from daytime to nighttime mixing regimes are increasingly delayed with weakening wind stress τ . These transitions are also delayed with respect to depth such that they follow a descent rate of roughly 6 m h −1 , independent of τ . We hypothesize that this wind-dependent delay is a direct result of wind-dependent diurnal warm layer deepening, which acts as the trigger to DC layer instability by bringing shear from the surface downward but at rates much slower than 6 m h −1 . This delay in initiation of DC layer instability contributes to a reduction in daily averaged values of turbulence dissipation. Both the absence of descending turbulence in the sheared DC layer prior to arrival of the diurnal warm layer shear and the magnitude of the subsequent descent rate after arrival are roughly predicted by laboratory experiments on entrainment in stratified shear flows. Significance Statement Only recently have long time series measurements of ocean turbulence been available anywhere. Important sites for these measurements are the equatorial cold tongues where the nature of upper-ocean turbulence differs from that in most of the world’s oceans and where heat uptake from the atmosphere is concentrated. Critical to heat transported downward from the mixed layer is the diurnally varying deep cycle of turbulence below the mixed layer and above the core of the Equatorial Undercurrent. Even though this layer does not directly contact the surface, here we show the influence of the surface winds on both the magnitude of the deep cycle turbulence and the timing of its descent into the depths below.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-22-0203.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 8
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Controls on Turbulent Mixing in a Strongly Stratified and Sheared Tidal River Plume
    American Meteorological Society ; 2016
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography Vol. 46, No. 8 ( 2016-08), p. 2373-2388
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 46, No. 8 ( 2016-08), p. 2373-2388
    Abstract: Considerable effort has been made to parameterize turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation rate ε and mixing in buoyant plumes and stratified shear flows. Here, a parameterization based on Kunze et al. is examined, which estimates ε as the amount of energy contained in an unstable shear layer (Ri 〈 Ri c ) that must be dissipated to increase the Richardson number Ri = N 2 / S 2 to a critical value Ri c within a turbulent decay time scale. Observations from the tidal Columbia River plume are used to quantitatively assess the relevant parameters controlling ε over a range of tidal and river discharge forcings. Observed ε is found to be characterized by Kunze et al.’s form within a factor of 2, while exhibiting slightly decreased skill near Ri = Ri c . Observed dissipation rates are compared to estimates from a constant interfacial drag formulation that neglects the direct effects of stratification. This is found to be appropriate in energetic regimes when the bulk-averaged Richardson number Ri b is less than Ri c /4. However, when Ri b 〉 Ri c /4, the effects of stratification must be included. Similarly, ε scaled by the bulk velocity and density differences over the plume displays a clear dependence on Ri b , decreasing as Ri b approaches Ri c . The Kunze et al. ε parameterization is modified to form an expression for the nondimensional dissipation rate that is solely a function of Ri b , displaying good agreement with the observations. It is suggested that this formulation is broadly applicable for unstable to marginally unstable stratified shear flows.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-15-0156.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2016
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 9
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    Online Resource
    Evolution of the Velocity Structure in the Diurnal Warm Layer
    American Meteorological Society ; 2020
    In:  Journal of Physical Oceanography Vol. 50, No. 3 ( 2020-03), p. 615-631
    Details
    In: Journal of Physical Oceanography, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 50, No. 3 ( 2020-03), p. 615-631
    Abstract: The daily formation of near-surface ocean stratification caused by penetrating solar radiation modifies heat fluxes through the air–sea interface, turbulence dissipation in the mixed layer, and the vertical profile of lateral transport. The transport is altered because momentum from wind is trapped in a thin near-surface layer, the diurnal warm layer. We investigate the dynamics of this layer, with particular attention to the vertical shear of horizontal velocity. We first develop a quantitative link between the near-surface shear components that relates the crosswind component to the inertial turning of the along-wind component. Three days of high-resolution velocity observations confirm this relation. Clear colocation of shear and stratification with Richardson numbers near 0.25 indicate marginal instability. Idealized numerical modeling is then invoked to extrapolate below the observed wind speeds. This modeling, together with a simple energetic scaling analysis, provides a rule of thumb that the diurnal shear evolves differently above and below a 2 m s −1 wind speed, with limited sensitivity of this threshold to latitude and mean net surface heat flux. Only above this wind speed is the energy input sufficient to overcome the stabilizing buoyancy flux and thereby induce marginal instability. The differing shear regimes explain differences in the timing and magnitude of diurnal sea surface temperature anomalies.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0022-3670 , 1520-0485
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-19-0207.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2020
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2042184-9
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 184162-2
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  • 10
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    Online Resource
    Ocean Speed and Turbulence Measurements Using Pitot-Static Tubes on Moorings
    American Meteorological Society ; 2015
    In:  Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology Vol. 32, No. 7 ( 2015-07), p. 1400-1413
    Details
    In: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 32, No. 7 ( 2015-07), p. 1400-1413
    Abstract: A low-power ( 〈 10 mW), physically small (15.6 cm long × 3.2 cm diameter), lightweight (600 g Cu; alternatively, 200 g Al), robust, and simply calibrated pitot-static tube to measure mean speed and turbulence dissipation is described and evaluated. The measurement of speed is derived from differential pressure via Bernoulli’s principle. The differential pressure sensor employed here has relatively small, but significant, adverse sensitivities to static pressure, temperature, and acceleration, which are characterized in tests in the college’s laboratory. Results from field tests on moorings indicate acceptable agreement in pitot-static speed measurements with independent acoustic Doppler current profiler speeds, characterized as linear fits with slope = 1 (95% confidence), ±0.02 m s −1 bias, and root-mean-square error of residuals (observed minus fitted values) = 0.055 m s −1 . Direct estimates of are derived from fits of velocity spectra to a theoretical turbulence inertial subrange. From near-bottom measurements, these estimates are interpreted as seafloor friction velocities, which yield drag coefficients consistent with expected values. Noise levels for , based on 40-min spectral fits, are 〈 10 –9 m 2 s –3 . In comparison to the airfoil (or shear) probe, the pitot-static tube provides the full spectrum of velocity, not just the dissipation range of the spectrum. In comparison to acoustic measurements of velocity, the pitot-static tube does not require acoustic scatters in the measurement volume. This makes the sensor a candidate for use in the deep ocean, for example, where acoustic scatterers are weak.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0739-0572 , 1520-0426
    URL: Article
    DOI: 10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00158.1
    Language: Unknown
    Publisher: American Meteorological Society
    Publication Date: 2015
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 2021720-1
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 48441-6
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