Note: Intro -- The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Also Available Electronically -- Aims and Scope -- Series Preface -- Preface -- Contents -- Part I: Introduction to the Nile Delta -- Nile Delta Biography: Challenges and Opportunities -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Description of the Nile Delta -- 2.1 Geography -- 2.2 Climate -- 2.3 Geology -- 3 Nile Delta Challenges -- 3.1 Land Use Change -- 3.2 Coastal Erosion -- 3.3 Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise (SLR) -- 3.4 Water Quality Deterioration -- 3.5 Seawater Intrusion -- 4 Proposed Mitigation, Adaptation Scenarios, and Opportunities -- 4.1 Land Use Challenge Adaptation -- 4.2 Coastal Erosion/Accretion Adaptation -- 4.3 Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise (SLR) Adaptation -- 4.4 Water Quality Deterioration Adaptation -- 4.5 Seawater Intrusion Adaptation -- 5 Summary -- References -- Ancient Water Supply System in Tall Tanis, Archaeological Area Northeastern Nile Delta Region, Port Said, Egypt -- 1 Background -- 1.1 Geomorphology -- 1.2 Historical Background -- 2 Water Supply System -- 3 The Water Lifting System -- 3.1 The Shaduf -- 3.2 The Saqiya (Noria-Waterwheel) -- 4 The Water Stored System -- 5 Conclusion and Recommendation -- References -- Part II: Groundwater in the Nile Delta -- Nile and Groundwater Interaction in the Western Nile Delta, Egypt -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Geology of the Nile Delta -- 3 Sampling and Analysis -- 4 Climate -- 4.1 Temperature -- 4.2 Rainfall -- 4.3 Evaporation -- 4.4 Relative Humidity -- 5 Hydrogeology -- 5.1 Oligocene Aquifer -- 5.2 Moghra (Miocene) Aquifer -- 5.3 Wadi El Natrun (Pliocene) Aquifer -- 5.4 Delta (Quaternary) Aquifer -- 6 Hydrogeochemistry -- 6.1 Electric Conductivity (EC) -- 6.2 Hydrogen Ion Activity (pH) -- 6.3 Salinity Content -- 6.4 Major Cations -- 6.4.1 Sodium -- 6.4.2 Potassium -- 6.4.3 Calcium -- 6.4.4 Magnesium -- 6.5 Major Anions -- 6.5.1 Chloride. , 6.5.2 Sulfate -- 6.5.3 Bicarbonate -- 6.5.4 Nutrients -- 7 Groundwater Types -- 7.1 Sulin´s Classification for the Groundwater -- 7.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio -- 7.3 Residual Sodium Carbonate -- 8 Trace Elements -- 9 Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Mapping of Groundwater in Egypt Using RS/GIS: Case Studies, Areas Surrounding Nile Valley and Its Delta -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Water Resources in Egypt -- 3 Groundwater Mapping -- 3.1 Concepts and Benefits of Groundwater Mapping -- 3.2 Elements of a Groundwater Map -- 4 Applications of RS and GIS in Groundwater Mapping -- 4.1 Overview of Applications -- 4.2 Mapping Using Aerial Photos and Satellite Images -- 4.3 Mapping Using Radar Data -- 5 Mapping of Groundwater in Egypt Using RS and GIS (Case Studies) -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Nile Delta Areas -- 5.3 Eastern Nile Valley Areas -- 5.4 Western Nile Valley Areas -- 6 Conclusions and Recommendations -- References -- GIS-Based Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality in the Western Nile Delta, Egypt -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Basics of Multivariate Analysis -- 2.1 Principal Components Analysis -- 2.2 Factor Analysis -- 3 Water Quality Indices -- 3.1 National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index -- 3.2 Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index -- 3.3 Oregon Water Quality Index -- 3.4 Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index Method -- 4 Suitability of Groundwater of Irrigation -- 4.1 Total Dissolved Solid -- 4.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio -- 4.3 Sodium Percentage -- 4.4 Residual Sodium Carbonate -- 4.5 Magnesium Hazard -- 4.6 Permeability Index -- 4.7 Kelly´s Ratio -- 4.8 Chloro-alkaline Indices -- 4.9 Corrosively Ratio -- 5 Case Study and Data Collection -- 6 Materials and Methods -- 7 Results and Discussions -- 7.1 Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality Parameters Based on Multivariate Analysis. , 7.2 Suitability of Groundwater for Drinking and Irrigation -- 7.2.1 Drinking -- 7.2.2 Irrigation -- 8 Conclusion and Recommendations -- References -- Modeling of Fertilizer Transport Through Soil, Case Study: Nile Delta -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Groundwater Aquifers -- 2.1 Types of Aquifers -- 2.1.1 Confined Aquifers -- 2.1.2 Unconfined Aquifer -- 2.2 Physical Properties of Aquifers -- 2.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity -- 2.2.2 Transmissivity -- 2.2.3 Storativity -- 2.3 Fundamental Equations of Groundwater Flow -- 2.3.1 Darcy Law -- 2.3.2 Equation of Continuity -- 3 Principles of Groundwater Contamination -- 3.1 Organic Contaminants -- 3.1.1 Hydrolysis -- 3.1.2 Oxidation-Reduction -- 3.1.3 Biodegradation -- 3.1.4 Adsorption -- 3.1.5 Volatilization -- 3.2 Inorganic Contaminants -- 3.2.1 Nitrogen -- 3.2.2 Phosphorous -- 3.2.3 Sulfur -- 4 Fertilizers in Nile Delta -- 4.1 Farming Systems and Agroecological Zones -- 4.1.1 Old Land -- 4.1.2 New Land -- 4.1.3 Oases -- 4.1.4 Rainfed Areas -- 4.2 Agricultural Production Systems -- 4.3 Crop Production System -- 4.3.1 Cereal Crops -- 4.3.2 Sugar Crops -- 4.3.3 Horticultural Crops -- 4.4 Cropping Patterns -- 4.5 Fertilizer Requirements and Crop Needs -- 4.6 Methods of Fertilizer Application -- 5 Transport of Contaminants in Groundwater -- 5.1 Advection -- 5.2 Dispersion -- 5.3 Retardation -- 6 Numerical Models and Computer Codes -- 6.1 Numerical Models -- 6.1.1 Finite Difference Methods -- 6.1.2 Finite Element Methods -- 6.1.3 Boundary Element Methods -- 6.2 Computer Codes -- 6.2.1 MODFLOW -- 6.2.2 MT3DMS -- 6.2.3 Groundwater Modeling System -- 6.2.4 Soil and Water Assessment Tool -- 6.2.5 Finite Element Subsurface Flow and Transport Simulation System -- 6.2.6 SUTRA -- 6.2.7 HYDRUS -- 6.2.8 SEAWAT -- 7 Case Study -- 7.1 General Considerations -- 7.2 Modeling Groundwater Flow -- 7.3 Modeling NO3- Transportation Processes. , 7.4 Results and Discussion -- 8 Conclusion and Recommendation -- References -- Groundwater Degradation and Remediation in the Nile Delta Aquifer -- 1 Introduction to Groundwater Contamination -- 1.1 Aspects of Groundwater Degradation -- 1.2 Sources of Groundwater Contamination -- 1.2.1 Nitrate -- 1.2.2 Pathogens -- 1.2.3 Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater -- 1.2.4 Fluoride -- 1.2.5 Landfill Leachate -- 1.2.6 On-Site Sanitation Systems -- 1.2.7 Sewage Treatment Plants -- 1.2.8 Hydraulic Fracturing -- 1.2.9 Others -- 1.3 Migration of Groundwater Contaminants -- 1.3.1 Interactions with Surface Water -- 1.3.2 Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers -- 1.4 Advection-Dispersion Solute Transport -- 1.5 Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater -- 2 State of the Art of the Nile Delta Aquifer -- 2.1 Land Use and Climate Conditions -- 2.2 Irrigation-Drainage Network -- 2.3 Hydrogeology and Aquifer Characteristics -- 2.4 Recharge-Discharge Sources of the Nile Delta Aquifer -- 2.5 Groundwater Use and Quality in the Nile Delta -- 3 Groundwater Contamination and Degradation in Nile Delta -- 3.1 Groundwater Movement and Contaminant Distribution -- 3.2 Sources of Groundwater Pollution in the Nile Delta -- 3.3 Vulnerability of Aquifer to Pollution -- 3.4 Groundwater Pollution Hazard and Assessment -- 4 Groundwater Quality Monitoring in the Nile Delta -- 4.1 Basic Types of Groundwater Monitoring -- 4.1.1 Ambient Monitoring -- 4.1.2 Compliance Monitoring -- 4.1.3 Assessment Monitoring -- 4.1.4 Remediation Monitoring -- 4.1.5 Post-Closure Monitoring -- 4.2 Groundwater Quality Monitoring Systems -- 4.3 Choice of Monitoring System -- 4.4 Locations and Depths of Monitoring Wells -- 4.5 Statistical Analysis of Monitoring Data -- 4.6 Groundwater Quality Sampling and Testing -- 5 Groundwater Solute Transport Modeling -- 5.1 Advection with Dispersion and Chemical Retardation. , 5.2 Advective-Dispersive Transport Equations -- 5.3 Conceptual Modeling -- 5.4 Mathematical Modeling -- 5.4.1 Finite Difference Method -- 5.4.2 Finite Element Method -- 5.5 Numerical Modeling of Nile Delta Aquifer -- 5.5.1 Model Design (Input Parameters) -- 5.5.2 Model Discretization -- 5.5.3 Boundary Conditions -- 5.5.4 Groundwater Recharge -- 5.5.5 Abstraction Wells -- 5.6 Numerical Modeling of Groundwater Contamination -- 6 Assessment of Groundwater Quality in the Nile Delta -- 6.1 Groundwater Quality Standards -- 6.2 Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes -- 6.3 Groundwater Quality Index WQI -- 6.4 Nile Delta Groundwater Quality Assessment -- 7 Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater in Nile Delta -- 7.1 Locating On-Site Sanitation Systems -- 7.2 Point-of-Use Treatment -- 7.3 Remedial Priority Ranking of Contaminated Sites -- 7.4 Groundwater Remediation Schemes -- 7.5 Remediation of Nitrate Contamination -- 8 Groundwater Salinity Management in Nile Delta -- 8.1 Freshwater-Saltwater Interface in the Nile Delta Aquifer -- 8.2 Groundwater Salinity Management in Nile Delta -- 8.3 Conclusions and Recommendations -- References -- Part III: Land and Soil, On-Farm Irrigation and Drainage Water -- Land Degradation in the Nile Delta -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Geographic and Overview -- 2.1 Soils of the Nile Delta -- 2.2 The Main Key Facts of the Nile Delta [2] -- 3 Land Degradation -- 3.1 The Causes of Land Degradation -- 3.1.1 Natural Causes -- 3.1.2 Human-Induced Causes -- 3.2 Types and Causes of Land Degradation [9] -- 4 Land Degradation in the Nile Delta and Its Impact -- 4.1 Salinity -- 4.1.1 Irrigation Water -- 4.1.2 Shallow Water Table and Logging -- 4.1.3 Seawater Intrusion -- 4.2 Seawater Rise -- 4.3 Contamination of Surface Water Canals -- 4.4 Land Compaction and Nutrient Depletion -- 4.5 Deterioration of Soil Structure -- 4.6 Urban Sprawl. , 5 Assessment of Soil Degradation due to Salinity.