Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): T.D. Jones, D.R. Davies, I.H. Campbell, C.R. Wilson, S.C. Kramer It has been proposed that the spatial variations recorded in the geochemistry of hotspot lavas, such as the bilateral asymmetry recorded at Hawaii, can be directly mapped as the heterogeneous structure and composition of their deep-mantle source. This would imply that source-region heterogeneities are transported into, and preserved within, a plume conduit, as the plume rises from the deep-mantle to Earth's surface. Previous laboratory and numerical studies, which neglect density and rheological variations between different chemical components, support this view. However, in this paper, we demonstrate that this interpretation cannot be extended to distinct chemical domains that differ from surrounding mantle in their density and viscosity. By numerically simulating thermo-chemical mantle plumes across a broad parameter space, in 2-D and 3-D, we identify two conduit structures: (i) bilaterally asymmetric conduits, which occur exclusively for cases where the chemical effect on buoyancy is negligible, in which the spatial distribution of deep-mantle heterogeneities is preserved during plume ascent; and (ii) concentric conduits, which occur for all other cases, with dense material preferentially sampled within the conduit's centre. In the latter regime, the spatial distribution of geochemical domains in the lowermost mantle is not preserved during plume ascent. Our results imply that the heterogeneous structure and composition of Earth's lowermost mantle can only be mapped from geochemical observations at Earth's surface if chemical heterogeneity is a passive component of lowermost mantle dynamics (i.e. its effect on density is outweighed by, or is secondary to, the effect of temperature). The implications of our results for: (i) why oceanic crust should be the prevalent component of ocean island basalts; and (ii) how we interpret the geochemical evolution of Earth's deep-mantle are also discussed.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): L. Laronne Ben-Itzhak, J. Erez, E. Aharonov Pressure solution (PS) is a widespread phenomenon in the Earth's upper crust, which influences many important natural processes, including porosity evolution of sedimentary rocks and fault healing. PS is a creep process effecting porous rocks, involving microscale dissolution and precipitation reactions mediated by diffusion of solutes in the fluid phase. This paper presents an experimental study in carbonates, aiming to advance basic understanding of the physical chemistry controlling PS. The experiments utilize a newly developed method which enables imaging the precipitation stage of PS with a confocal microscope, via a fluorescent marker that binds to precipitating carbonate. We use this method to study the relative role of the various driving forces and the dominant mechanisms controlling the amount and spatial distribution of precipitation in carbonates undergoing PS. Using a clamping apparatus we performed dozens of experiments in which carbonate samples were indented by quartz grains in the presence of water. Carbonate precipitation was observed to occur relatively fast (hours–days), within and around all indented pits, irrespective of the imposed experimental conditions such as stress and fluid saturation, yet the amount and distribution of the precipitation varies between experiments. Two major factors were found to control the amount of precipitation: degree of damage inflicted by pitting and the application of stress. Fluid saturation was seen to affect the spatial distribution of precipitates. In light of these results, we reexamine the traditional chemical potential equations of PS in order to explain the comparable effects of damage and stress on precipitation.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): Stuart J. Daines, Timothy M. Lenton The balance of evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis had evolved by 3.0–2.7 Ga, several hundred million years prior to the Great Oxidation ≈2.4 Ga. Previous work has shown that if oxygenic photosynthesis spread globally prior to the Great Oxidation, this could have supported widespread aerobic ecosystems in the surface ocean, without oxidising the atmosphere. Here we use a suite of models to explore the implications for carbon cycling and the Great Oxidation. We find that recycling of oxygen and carbon within early aerobic marine ecosystems would have restricted the balanced fluxes of methane and oxygen escaping from the ocean, lowering the atmospheric concentration of methane in the Great Oxidation transition and its aftermath. This in turn would have minimised any bi-stability of atmospheric oxygen, by weakening a stabilising feedback on oxygen from hydrogen escape to space. The result would have been a more reversible and probably episodic rise of oxygen at the Great Oxidation transition, consistent with existing geochemical evidence. The resulting drop in methane levels to ≈10 ppm is consistent with climate cooling at the time but adds to the puzzle of what kept the rest of the Proterozoic warm. A key test of the scenario of abundant methanotrophy in oxygen oases before the Great Oxidation is its predicted effects on the organic carbon isotope ( δ 13 C org ) record. Our open ocean general circulation model predicts δ C org 13 ≈ − 30 to −45‰ consistent with most data from 2.65 to 2.45 Ga. However, values of δ C org 13 ≈ − 50 ‰ require an extreme scenario such as concentrated methanotroph production where shelf-slope upwelling of methane-rich water met oxic shelf water.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): R. Wei, W. Abouchami, R. Zahn, P. Masque We report down-core sedimentary Nd isotope ( ε Nd ) records from two South Atlantic sediment cores, MD02-2594 and GeoB3603-2, located on the western South African continental margin. The core sites are positioned downstream of the present-day flow path of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) and close to the Southern Ocean, which makes them suitable for reconstructing past variability in NADW circulation over the last glacial cycle. The Fe–Mn leachates ε Nd records show a coherent decreasing trend from glacial radiogenic values towards less radiogenic values during the Holocene. This trend is confirmed by ε Nd in fish debris and mixed planktonic foraminifera, albeit with an offset during the Holocene to lower values relative to the leachates, matching the present-day composition of NADW in the Cape Basin. We interpret the ε Nd changes as reflecting the glacial shoaling of Southern Ocean waters to shallower depths combined with the admixing of southward flowing Northern Component Water (NCW). A compilation of Atlantic ε Nd records reveals increasing radiogenic isotope signatures towards the south and with increasing depth. This signal is most prominent during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and of similar amplitude across the Atlantic basin, suggesting continuous deep water production in the North Atlantic and export to the South Atlantic and the Southern Ocean. The amplitude of the ε Nd change from the LGM to Holocene is largest in the southernmost cores, implying a greater sensitivity to the deglacial strengthening of NADW at these sites. This signal impacted most prominently the South Atlantic deep and bottom water layers that were particularly deprived of NCW during the LGM. The ε Nd variations correlate with changes in 231 Pa/ 230 Th ratios and benthic δ 13 C across the deglacial transition. Together with the contrasting 231 Pa/ 230 Th: ε Nd pattern of the North and South Atlantic, this indicates a progressive reorganization of the AMOC to full strength during the Holocene.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): Ernest Chi Fru, Christoffer Hemmingsson, Mikaela Holm, Beverly Chiu, Enrique Iñiguez Comparison of phosphorus concentrations associated with modern hydrothermal Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides and ancient Fe(III) oxide-rich iron formations, is used to estimate bioavailable Precambrian marine phosphorus (P) concentrations. This led to the proposition of a low dissolved P budget of ∼10–25% of present-day levels, before ∼1.9 billion years ago. Estimates incorporating ancient marine Si levels ≥ 0.67   mM instead suggested global dissolved P levels greater than today. Here we unite current experimental models that have considered NaCl solutions containing elevated dissolved Fe(II), Si, Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions in the incorporation of P in Precambrian marine Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides, in addition to arsenic as a hydrothermal proxy. We show that the coprecipitation of dissolved P and Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides from arsenic-rich marine waters produces an average P distribution coefficient of ∼0.072 ( ± 0.01 )   μ M − 1 . This is comparable to the ∼ 0.07   μ M − 1 predicted for Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides in modern arsenic-rich, submarine hydrothermal settings, from which the lower Early Proterozoic dissolved marine P concentrations were predicted. As/P molar ratios below modern seawater ratios removed the negative feedback effect high Si impose on P scavenging by Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides. The binding of As(III) to Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides exhibits a lower competitive influence on P fixation. As(V) that likely became prominent in the surficially oxidized Early Proterozoic oceans induced dissolved P limitation because of preferential P sequestration at the expense of dissolved As(V) enrichment. The control of As on P scavenging by the precipitating Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides is strong regardless of common seawater cations (Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ ). The data suggest that the application of Si and Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides as an ancient seawater P proxy should consider chemical variability between depositional basins, taking into account the rather strong role hydrothermal arsenic has on the distribution of P in Fe(III)(oxyhydr)oxides. We propose that the generalized lower dissolved P budgets estimated from Early Proterozoic iron formations are consistent with oceans thought to be at least 3–4 times more hydrothermally active than at present.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): F. Maccaferri, E. Rivalta, L. Passarelli, Y. Aoki Magma stored beneath volcanoes is sometimes transported out of the magma chambers by means of laterally propagating dikes, which can lead to fissure eruptions if they intersect the Earth's surface. The driving force for lateral dike propagation can be a lateral tectonic stress gradient, the stress gradient due to the topographic loads, the overpressure of the magma chamber, or a combination of those forces. The 2000 dike intrusion at Miyakejima volcano, Izu arc, Japan, propagated laterally for about 30 km and stopped in correspondence of a strike-slip system, sub-perpendicular to the dike plane. Then the dike continued to inflate, without further propagation. Abundant seismicity was produced, including five M > 6 earthquakes, one of which occurred on the pre-existing fault system close to the tip of the dike, at approximately the time of arrest. It has been proposed that the main cause for the dike arrest was the fault-induced stress. Here we use a boundary element numerical approach to study the interplay between a propagating dike and a pre-stressed strike-slip fault and check the relative role played by dike–fault interaction and topographic loading in arresting the Miyakejima dike. We calibrate the model parameters according to previous estimates of dike opening and fault displacement based on crustal deformation observations. By computing the energy released during the propagation, our model indicates whether the dike will stop at a given location. We find that the stress gradient induced by the topography is needed for an opening distribution along the dike consistent with the observed seismicity, but it cannot explain its arrest at the prescribed location. On the other hand, the interaction of dike with the fault explains the arrest but not the opening distribution. The joint effect of the topographic load and the stress interaction with strike-slip fault is consistent with the observations, provided the pre-existing fault system is pre-loaded with a significant stress, released gradually during the dike–fault interplay. Our results reveal how the mechanical interaction between dikes and faults may affect the propagation of magmatic intrusions in general. This has implications for our understanding of the geometrical arrangement of rift segments and transform faults in Mid Ocean Ridges, and for the interplay between dikes and dike-induced graben systems.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): Glenn A. Spinelli, Ikuko Wada, Jiangheng He, Matthew Perry Fluids released from subducting slabs affect geochemical recycling and melt generation in the mantle wedge. The distribution of slab dehydration and the potential for slab melting are controlled by the composition/hydration of the slab entering a subduction zone and the pressure–temperature path that the slab follows. We examine the potential for along-strike changes in temperatures, fluid release, and slab melting for the subduction zone beneath the southern portion of the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) in south central Chile. Because the age of the Nazca Plate entering the subduction zone decreases from ∼14 Ma north of the Guafo Fracture Zone to ∼6 Ma to the south, a southward warming of the subduction zone has been hypothesized. However, both north and south of Guafo Fracture Zone the geochemical signatures of southern SVZ arc lavas are similar, indicating 3–5 wt.% sediment melt and little to no contribution from melt of subducted basalt or aqueous fluids from subducted crust. We model temperatures in the system, use results of the thermal models and the thermodynamic calculation code Perple_X to estimate the pattern of dehydration-derived fluid release, and examine the potential locations for the onset of melting of the subducting slab. Surface heat flux observations in the region are most consistent with fluid circulation in the high permeability upper oceanic crust redistributing heat. This hydrothermal circulation preferentially cools the hottest parts of the system (i.e. those with the youngest subducting lithosphere). Models including the thermal effects of fluid circulation in the oceanic crust predict melting of the subducting sediment but not the basalt, consistent with the geochemical observations. In contrast, models that do not account for fluid circulation predict melting of both subducting sediment and basalt below the volcanic arc south of Guafo Fracture Zone. In our simulations with the effects of fluid circulation, the onset of sediment melting occurs under the volcanic arc, but dewatering of the subducting sediment and basalt is focused farther seaward (below the landward boundary of the stagnant mantle wedge corner). Thus, the sediment melt could enter the mantle wedge, contributing to the composition of the southern SVZ magmas, yet remain separate from the fluid derived from sediment dewatering which could migrate updip within the slab or into the wedge corner. Preferential hydrothermal cooling of the hottest segments of the system can help explain how there can be fairly uniform magma composition along the arc, despite large along-arc differences in the age of the subducting plate.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): Ye Wu, Xiang Wu, Jung-Fu Lin, Catherine A. McCammon, Yuming Xiao, Paul Chow, Vitali B. Prakapenka, Takashi Yoshino, Shuangmeng Zhai, Shan Qin Al-rich phases (NAL: new hexagonal aluminous phase and CF: calcium–ferrite phase) are believed to constitute 10 ∼ 30  wt% of subducted mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) in the Earth's lower mantle. In order to understand the effects of iron on compressibility and elastic properties of the NAL phase, we have studied two single-crystal samples (Fe-free Na 1.14 Mg 1.83 Al 4.74 Si 1.23 O 12 and Fe-bearing Na 0.71 Mg 2.05 Al 4.62 Si 1.16 Fe 2 + 0.09 Fe 3 + 0.17 O 12 ) using synchrotron nuclear forward scattering (NFS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) combined with diamond anvil cells up to 86 GPa at room temperature. A pressure-induced high-spin (HS) to low-spin (LS) transition of the octahedral Fe 3+ in the Fe-bearing NAL is observed at approximately 30 GPa by NFS. Compared to the Fe-free NAL, the Fe-bearing NAL undergoes a volume reduction of 1.0% (∼1.2 Å 3 ) at 33 ∼ 47  GPa as supported by XRD, which is associated with the spin transition of the octahedral Fe 3+ . The fits of Birch–Murnaghan equation of state (B–M EoS) to P – V data yield unit-cell volume at zero pressure V 0 = 183.1 ( 1 )  Å 3 and isothermal bulk modulus K T 0 = 233 ( 6 )  GPa with a pressure derivative K T 0 ′ = 3.7 ( 2 ) for the Fe-free NAL; V 0 - HS = 184.76 ( 6 )  Å 3 and K T 0 - HS = 238 ( 1 )  GPa with K T 0 - HS ′ = 4 (fixed) for the Fe-bearing NAL. The bulk sound velocities ( V Φ ) of the Fe-free and Fe-bearing NAL phase are approximately 6% larger than those of Al, Fe-bearing bridgmanite and calcium silicate perovskite in the lower mantle, except for the spin transition region where a notable softening of V Φ with a maximum reduction of 9.4% occurs in the Fe-bearing NAL at 41 GPa. Considering the high volume proportion of the NAL phase in subducted MORB, the distinct elastic properties of the Fe-bearing NAL phase across the spin transition reported here may provide an alternative plausible explanation for the observed seismic heterogeneities of subducted slabs in the lower mantle at depths below 1200 km. Graphical abstract

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): Ayten Koç, Douwe J.J. van Hinsbergen, Nuretdin Kaymakci, Cornelis G. Langereis The Tauride fold-thrusts belt formed during ∼S–N convergence between Africa and Eurasia since Cretaceous time. The western end of the central Taurides strike NW–SE, highly obliquely to the overall convergence direction, and connect to the NE–SW Beydağları–Lycian Nappe flank of the western Taurides, forming the so-called ‘Isparta Angle’. In Neogene time, the western and central Taurides and the inner part of the Isparta Angle became overlain by Neogene sedimentary basins including Manavgat, Köprüçay and Aksu, characterized by marine clastics and carbonates. The eastern limb of the Isparta Angle experienced multidirectional Miocene to Present extension, whereas E–W shortening affected the marine sedimentary basins in the heart of the Isparta Angle. To quantitatively reconstruct the Neogene kinematic evolution of the Taurides, towards restoring the subduction system accommodating Africa–Eurasia convergence, we paleomagnetically assess if and when vertical axis rotations affected the Manavgat, Köprüçay, and Aksu basins in Early Miocene to Pliocene times. We show that the northern Köprüçay Basin rotated ∼20–30° clockwise, the Manavgat Basin underwent ∼25–35° counterclockwise rotation, and the Aksu Basin underwent no rotation since the Early-Middle Miocene. It was previously shown that the Beydağları region underwent a post-Middle Miocene ∼20° counterclockwise rotation. These results show that the prominent oroclinal salient geometry of the western Taurides thus acquired, at least in part, since Miocene times, that the Köprüçay Basin rotated relative to the Aksu Basin along the Aksu thrust, and that the Beydağları platform rotated relative to the Aksu Basin along the Bucak thrust, which must have both been active until Late Neogene time. This synchronous E–W shortening in the heart of the Isparta Angle, and multidirectional extension in its eastern limb may be explained by relative westward retreat of an eastward dipping subducting Antalya slab that has previously been imaged by seismic tomography and a Benioff zone. The Neogene Bucak thrust west of the Aksu Basin may represent the most recent surface expression of the Antalya subduction zone.

Beschreibung: Publication date: 15 January 2016 Source: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Volume 434 Author(s): Yuki Nakashima, Kosuke Heki, Akiko Takeo, Mokhamad N. Cahyadi, Arif Aditiya, Kazunori Yoshizawa Acoustic waves from volcanic eruptions are often observed as infrasound in near fields. Part of them propagate upward and disturb the ionosphere, and can be observed with Total Electron Content (TEC) data from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers. Here we report TEC variations after the 13 February 2014 Plinian eruption of the Kelud volcano, East Java, Indonesia, observed with regional GNSS networks. Significant disturbances in TEC were detected with six GNSS satellites, and wavelet analysis showed that harmonic oscillations started at ∼16:25 UT and continued for ∼2.5 h. The amplitude spectrum of the TEC time series showed peaks at 3.7 mHz, 4.8 mHz and 6.8 mHz. Long-wavelength standing waves with a wide range of wavelength trapped in the lower atmosphere are excited by the Plinian eruption. Amplitude spectra of the ground motion recorded by seismometers, however, had frequency components at discrete wave-periods. The condition for the resonant oscillations between the atmosphere and the solid Earth is satisfied only at these discrete wave-period and horizontal wavelength pairs, therefore efficient energy transfer from the atmospheric standing waves to the solid Earth Rayleigh waves occurred at discrete periods and resulted in the harmonic ground motion. Graphical abstract