Note: Front Cover -- Food Industry Wastes -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of contributors -- Preface to second edition -- List of abbreviations -- I. Food Industry Wastes: Challenges and Prospects -- 1 Definitions, measurement, and drivers of food loss and waste -- Glossary -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Defining food loss and waste -- 1.3 Extent of food loss and waste -- 1.3.1 Methodological approaches for quantifying food loss and waste -- 1.3.2 Existing estimates of food loss and waste in mass -- 1.3.2.1 Overview -- 1.3.2.2 Food loss and waste along the food supply chain in middle- and high-income countries -- Case study: composition of avoidable food loss and waste along the food supply chain-empirical results for Scandinavian cou... -- 1.3.2.3 Food loss and waste along the food supply chain in low-income countries -- 1.3.3 Costs associated with food loss and waste -- 1.3.3.1 Economic costs -- 1.3.3.2 Environmental resource use related to food loss and waste -- 1.4 Drivers of food loss and waste -- 1.5 Potential prevention approaches and impact assessment -- 1.5.1 Theoretical considerations -- 1.5.2 Empirical evidence -- 1.6 Conclusion -- References -- 2 Effectiveness and efficiency of food-waste prevention policies, circular economy, and food industry -- Glossary -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Food-waste prevention in a circular economy policy perspective -- 2.3 (Economic) assessments of food-waste prevention efforts -- 2.3.1 United States of America: "Roadmap to Reduce U.S. Food Waste by 20%" -- 2.3.1.1 Calculation of the cost reductions -- 2.3.1.1.1 Solutions evaluation -- 2.3.1.1.2 Baseline definition -- 2.3.1.2 Calculation of economic values -- 2.3.1.2.1 Data analysis -- 2.3.1.3 Calculation of the noneconomic value -- 2.3.1.3.1 Data validation -- 2.3.2 Sweden: "Reduced food waste-environmental benefits and cost saving". , 2.3.2.1 Assumptions and terms -- 2.3.2.2 Calculation of the cost reductions -- 2.3.2.3 Calculation of the environmental benefits -- 2.3.3 United Kingdom: "Household Food Waste in the UK, 2015" -- 2.3.3.1 Calculation of the economic implications -- 2.3.3.2 Calculation of the environmental benefits -- 2.3.4 Overview on study methodologies and outcomes -- 2.4 Conclusion -- 2.4.1 Comparison of the food-waste prevention measures -- 2.4.2 Food-waste prevention and rebound effects -- 2.4.3 Further research -- References -- 3 Sources, characteristics and treatment of plant-based food waste -- Glossary -- Thermal conversion of solid waste -- Biochemical conversion technologies -- 3.1 Introduction: Sources of food loss and waste -- 3.1.1 Sources of food loss and waste -- 3.2 Characterization and composition of food loss and waste -- 3.2.1 Fruit and vegetable wastes -- 3.2.1.1 Seasonal variations -- 3.2.1.2 Physical and chemical properties and organic content -- 3.2.1.3 Rheological properties -- 3.2.2 Fruit wastes -- 3.2.2.1 Banana waste -- 3.2.2.1.1 Adsorbents from banana waste -- Adsorbents for heavy metals -- Adsorbents for dyes -- Adsorbents for pesticides -- Adsorbent for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aromatic compounds -- Adsorbent for radioactive compounds -- 3.2.2.1.2 Biomethane production from banana waste -- 3.2.2.1.3 Production of cellulose nanofibers -- 3.2.2.2 Apple pomace -- 3.2.2.3 Grape pomace and winemaking by-products -- 3.2.2.3.1 Wine lees -- 3.2.2.3.2 Treatment of Winery Wastewater -- 3.2.2.4 Citrus peels and pulp -- 3.2.3 Vegetable wastes -- 3.2.3.1 Tomato waste -- 3.2.3.2 Onion waste -- 3.2.3.3 Lettuce and fresh-cut salad processing by-products -- 3.2.3.4 The 3R opportunities and limitations of fruit and vegetable waste -- 3.2.4 Cereal-based by-products -- 3.2.4.1 Wheat by-products -- 3.2.4.2 Corn by-products. , 3.2.4.3 Rice by-products -- 3.2.4.4 Oat by-products -- 3.2.4.5 Barley by-products -- 3.2.4.6 Brewer's spent grain -- 3.2.5 Oil-bearing crops and their waste or by-products -- 3.2.5.1 By-products of the Olive oil industry -- 3.2.5.1.1 Thermochemical treatment of Olive mill waste -- 3.2.5.1.2 Biorefinery approach -- 3.2.6 Roots and tubers -- 3.2.6.1 Potato waste streams -- 3.3 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Sources, characteristics, treatment, and analyses of animal-based food wastes -- Glossary -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.1.1 Fishery by-products and fish waste -- 4.1.1.1 Composition of fish waste -- 4.1.1.2 Basic principles of anaerobic digestion of solid food waste -- 4.1.1.3 Anaerobic digestion of low-value fish waste -- 4.1.1.4 By-products processed into fishmeal and fish oil -- 4.1.2 Crustacean wastes -- 4.2 Meat production waste and by-products -- 4.2.1 Utilization of animal blood -- 4.2.2 Gelatin production from fresh raw skin and hides or bones -- 4.2.3 Utilization of bones -- 4.2.3.1 Production of protein hydrolysate -- 4.2.3.2 Rendering meat and poultry by-products -- 4.2.3.3 Meat-processing wastewater -- 4.2.3.4 Thermal conversion of meat waste -- 4.2.3.4.1 Biorefinery approach applied to meat waste treatment -- 4.3 Poultry waste and by-products -- 4.4 Dairy by-products -- 4.5 Analytical methods -- 4.5.1 Chemical oxygen demand -- 4.5.2 Total organic carbon and other compounds -- 4.5.3 Biochemical oxygen demand -- 4.5.4 Biosensors -- 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- II. Treatment of Solid Food Wastes -- 5 Nutraceutical potential and utilization aspects of food industry by-products and wastes -- Glossary -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 By-products of food processing industries -- 5.2.1 Fruit and vegetable processing by-products -- 5.2.2 Cereal processing by-products -- 5.2.3 Dairy industry by-products -- 5.2.4 Seafood processing by-products. , 5.2.5 Meat processing by-products -- 5.3 Food industry by-products as a source of bioactive components -- 5.4 Techniques for extraction of bioactive components -- 5.4.1 Supercritical fluid extraction -- 5.4.2 Enzyme-assisted extraction -- 5.4.3 Solvent-based extraction technique -- 5.4.4 Microwave-assisted extraction -- 5.4.5 Subcritical water extraction -- 5.4.6 Extraction using ultrasound -- 5.5 Comparative evaluation of different extraction technologies for recovery of bioactive compounds -- 5.6 Nutraceutical potential and utilization of bioactive components -- 5.7 Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 6 Valorization of citrus waste through sustainable extraction processes -- Glossary -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Value-added products from citrus waste -- 6.2.1 Bioactive composition of citrus waste and conventional extraction methods -- 6.2.1.1 Essential oils -- 6.2.1.2 Natural antioxidants -- 6.2.1.3 Pectin -- 6.2.2 Overview of sustainable extraction techniques for separation of bioactive compounds -- 6.3 Sustainable extraction of value-added compounds from citrus by-products -- 6.3.1 Essential oils -- 6.3.1.1 Limonene extraction -- 6.3.1.2 Deterpenation of essential oils -- 6.3.2 Natural antioxidants -- 6.3.3 Pectin -- 6.4 Design of integrated biorefineries: citrus waste processing case study and computational tools -- 6.4.1 Case study: Biorefineries from citrus waste -- 6.4.2 Computer-aided tools applied to the design of citrus waste biorefineries -- 6.5 Conclusion -- References -- 7 Solid-state fermentation of food industry wastes -- Glossary -- 7.1 Introduction. Food industry residues: from wastes to product intermediates -- 7.2 Solid-state fermentations for value addition of food industry wastes -- 7.2.1 Features of solid-state fermentations -- 7.2.2 Parameters that influence microbial growth in solid-state fermentation. , 7.2.2.1 Biological factors -- 7.2.2.1.1 Microorganism and inoculum -- 7.2.2.1.2 Substrates -- 7.2.2.2 Physicochemical factors -- 7.2.2.2.1 Moisture content and water activity -- 7.2.2.2.2 pH -- 7.2.2.2.3 Temperature -- 7.2.2.2.4 Aeration and oxygen requirements -- 7.2.2.2.5 Particle size -- 7.2.2.3 Mechanical factors -- 7.2.2.3.1 Agitation/mixing -- 7.3 Bioreactor design in solid-state fermentation -- 7.3.1 Heat and mass transfer phenomena in solid-state fermentation bioreactors -- 7.3.2 Macroscale phenomena -- 7.3.2.1 Microscale phenomena -- 7.3.3 Classification of bioreactors for solid-state fermentation -- 7.3.3.1 Tray bioreactors -- 7.3.3.2 Packed-bed bioreactors -- 7.3.3.3 Rotating drum bioreactors -- 7.3.3.4 Fluidized-bed bioreactors -- 7.3.3.5 Spouted-bed bioreactors -- 7.3.4 Solid-state fermentation bioreactor selection -- 7.4 Solid-state fermentation products from food industry wastes -- 7.4.1 Organic acids -- 7.4.1.1 Lactic acid -- 7.4.1.2 Citric acid -- 7.4.2 Aroma compounds -- 7.4.3 Antibiotics -- 7.4.4 Ethanol -- 7.4.5 Enzymes -- 7.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 8 Microbial production of butanol from food industry waste -- Glossary -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Feedstocks used for fermentative production of butanol -- 8.2.1 Problems of using food wastes as substrates -- 8.2.1.1 Cellulose and hemicellulose derived inhibitors -- 8.2.1.2 Lignin-derived inhibitors -- 8.2.1.3 Inhibitory effect of salts -- 8.3 Producing strains: promising commercial producers -- 8.4 Fermentation technology for butanol production -- 8.4.1 Batch fermentation -- 8.4.2 Continuous acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation -- 8.4.3 Fermentation integrated with recovery process -- 8.4.4 Butanol production by co-culture -- 8.5 Conclusion -- Acknowledgment -- References. , 9 Inventory of food processing side streams in European Union and prospects for biorefinery development.

Note: Intro -- Contents -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 The laser -- 1.2 Electromagnetic radiation in a closed cavity -- 1.2.1 The density of modes -- 1.3 Planck's law -- 1.3.1 The energy density of blackbody radiation -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 2 The interaction of radiation and matter -- 2.1 The Einstein treatment -- 2.1.1 Relations between the Einstein coefficients -- 2.2 Conditions for optical gain -- 2.2.1 Conditions for steady-state inversion -- 2.2.2 Necessary, but not sufficient condition -- 2.3 The semi-classical treatment[sup(†)] -- 2.3.1 Outline -- 2.3.2 Selection rules for electric dipole transitions -- 2.4 Atomic population kinetics[sup(†)] -- 2.4.1 Rate equations -- 2.4.2 Semi-classical equations -- 2.4.3 Validity of the rate-equation approach -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 3 Broadening mechanisms and lineshapes -- 3.1 Homogeneous broadening mechanisms -- 3.1.1 Natural broadening -- 3.1.2 Pressure broadening -- 3.1.3 Phonon broadening -- 3.2 Inhomogeneous broadening mechanisms -- 3.2.1 Doppler broadening -- 3.2.2 Broadening in amorphous solids -- 3.3 The interaction of radiation and matter in the presence of spectral broadening -- 3.3.1 Homogeneously broadened transitions -- 3.3.2 Inhomogeneously broadened atoms[sup(†)] -- 3.4 The formation of spectral lines: The Voigt profile[sup(†)] -- 3.5 Other broadening effects -- 3.5.1 Self-absorption -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 4 Light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation -- 4.1 The optical gain cross-section -- 4.1.1 Condition for optical gain -- 4.1.2 Frequency dependence of the gain cross-section -- 4.1.3 The gain coefficient -- 4.1.4 Gain narrowing -- 4.2 Narrowband radiation -- 4.2.1 Amplification of narrowband radiation -- 4.2.2 Form of rate equations -- 4.3 Gain cross-section for inhomogeneous broadening[sup(†)] -- 4.4 Orders of magnitude -- 4.5 Absorption. , 4.5.1 The absorption cross-section -- 4.5.2 Self-absorption -- 4.5.3 Radiation trapping -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 5 Gain saturation -- 5.1 Saturation in a steady-state amplifier -- 5.1.1 Homogeneous broadening -- 5.1.2 Inhomogeneous broadening[sup(†)] -- 5.2 Saturation in a homogeneously broadened pulsed amplifier[sup(†)] -- 5.3 Design of laser amplifiers -- Exercises -- 6 The laser oscillator -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) lasers -- 6.3 Optical cavities -- 6.3.1 General considerations -- 6.3.2 Low-loss (or 'stable') optical cavities -- 6.3.3 High-loss (or 'unstable') optical cavities[sup(†)] -- 6.4 Beam quality[sup(†)] -- 6.4.1 The M[sup(2)] beam-propagation factor -- 6.5 The approach to laser oscillation -- 6.5.1 The 'cold' cavity -- 6.5.2 The laser threshold condition -- 6.6 Laser oscillation above threshold -- 6.6.1 Condition for steady-state laser oscillation -- 6.6.2 Homogeneously broadened systems -- 6.6.3 Inhomogeneously broadened systems[sup(†)] -- 6.7 Output power -- 6.7.1 Low-gain lasers -- 6.7.2 High-gain lasers: the Rigrod analysis[sup(†)] -- 6.7.3 Output power in other cases -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 7 Solid-state lasers -- 7.1 General considerations -- 7.1.1 Energy levels of ions doped in solid hosts[sup(†)] -- 7.1.2 Radiative transitions[sup(†)] -- 7.1.3 Non-radiative transitions[sup(†)] -- 7.1.4 Line broadening[sup(†)] -- 7.1.5 Three- and four-level systems -- 7.1.6 Host materials -- 7.1.7 Techniques for optical pumping -- 7.2 Nd[sup(3)+]: YAG and other trivalent rare-earth systems -- 7.2.1 Energy-level structure -- 7.2.2 Transition linewidth -- 7.2.3 Nd:YAG laser -- 7.2.4 Other crystalline hosts -- 7.2.5 Nd:glass laser -- 7.2.6 Erbium lasers -- 7.2.7 Praseodymium ions -- 7.3 Ruby and other trivalent iron-group systems -- 7.3.1 Energy-level structure[sup(†)] -- 7.3.2 The ruby laser. , 7.3.3 Alexandrite laser -- 7.3.4 Cr:LiSAF and Cr:LiCAF -- 7.3.5 Ti:sapphire -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 8 Dynamic cavity effects -- 8.1 Laser spiking and relaxation oscillations -- 8.1.1 Rate-equation analysis -- 8.1.2 Analysis of relaxation oscillations -- 8.1.3 Numerical analysis of laser spiking -- 8.2 Q-switching -- 8.2.1 Techniques for Q-switching -- 8.2.2 Rate-equation analysis of Q-switching -- 8.2.3 Comparison with numerical simulations -- 8.3 Modelocking -- 8.3.1 General ideas -- 8.3.2 Simple treatment of modelocking -- 8.3.3 Active modelocking techniques -- 8.3.4 Passive modelocking techniques -- 8.4 Other forms of pulsed output -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 9 Semiconductor lasers -- 9.1 Basic features of a typical semiconductor diode laser -- 9.2 Review of semiconductor physics -- 9.2.1 Band structure -- 9.2.2 Density of states and the Fermi energy (T = 0K) -- 9.2.3 The Fermi-Dirac distribution (T ≠ 0K) -- 9.2.4 Doped semiconductors -- 9.3 Radiative transitions in semiconductors -- 9.4 Gain at a p-i-n junction -- 9.5 Gain in diode lasers -- 9.6 Carrier and photon confinement: the double heterostructure -- 9.7 Laser materials -- 9.8 Quantum-well lasers[sup(†)] -- 9.9 Laser threshold -- 9.10 Diode laser beam properties -- 9.10.1 Beam shape -- 9.10.2 Transverse modes of edge-emitting lasers -- 9.10.3 Longitudinal modes of diode lasers -- 9.10.4 Single longitudinal mode diode lasers -- 9.10.5 Diode laser linewidth -- 9.10.6 Tunable diode laser cavities[sup(†)] -- 9.11 Diode laser output power[sup(†)] -- 9.12 VCSEL lasers[sup(†)] -- 9.13 Strained-layer lasers -- 9.14 Quantum cascade lasers[sup(†)] -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 10 Fibre lasers -- 10.1 Optical fibres -- 10.1.1 The importance of optical-fibre technology -- 10.1.2 Optical-fibre properties: Ray optics -- 10.1.3 Optical-fibre properties: Wave optics. , 10.1.4 Dispersion in optical fibres -- 10.1.5 Fabrication of optical fibres -- 10.1.6 Fibre-optic components -- 10.2 Wavelength bands for fibre-optic telecommunications -- 10.3 Erbium-doped fibre amplifiers -- 10.3.1 Energy levels and pumping schemes -- 10.3.2 Gain spectra -- 10.3.3 EDFA design and layout -- 10.3.4 Fabrication of erbium-doped fibre amplifiers -- 10.4 Fibre Raman amplifiers -- 10.4.1 Introduction -- 10.4.2 Raman scattering -- 10.4.3 Fibre Raman amplifiers -- 10.4.4 Long-haul optical transmission systems -- 10.5 High-power fibre lasers -- 10.5.1 The revolution in fibre-laser performance -- 10.5.2 Cladding-pumped fibre-laser design -- 10.5.3 Materials and mechanisms of cladding-pumped fibre-laser systems -- 10.5.4 High-power fibre lasers: Linewidth considerations -- 10.6 High-power pulsed fibre lasers -- 10.6.1 Large mode area (LMA) fibres -- 10.6.2 Q-switched fibre lasers -- 10.6.3 Oscillator-amplifier pulsed fibre lasers -- 10.7 Applications of high-power fibre lasers -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 11 Atomic gas lasers -- 11.1 Discharge physics interlude -- 11.1.1 Low-pressure and high-pressure discharges -- 11.1.2 Low-pressure glow discharge -- 11.1.3 Temperatures -- 11.1.4 The steady-state positive column -- 11.1.5 Ionization rates -- 11.1.6 Excitation rates -- 11.1.7 Second-kind or superelastic collisions -- 11.1.8 Excited-state populations in low-pressure discharges -- 11.2 The helium-neon laser -- 11.2.1 Introduction -- 11.2.2 Energy levels, transitions and excitation mechanisms -- 11.2.3 Laser construction and operating parameters -- 11.2.4 Output-power limitations of the He-Ne laser -- 11.2.5 Applications of He-Ne lasers -- 11.3 The argon-ion laser -- 11.3.1 Introduction -- 11.3.2 Energy levels, transitions and excitation mechanisms -- 11.3.3 Laser construction and operating parameters. , 11.3.4 Argon-ion laser: Power limitations -- 11.3.5 Krypton-ion lasers -- 11.3.6 Applications of ion lasers -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 12 Infra-red molecular gas lasers -- 12.1 Efficiency considerations -- 12.1.1 Energy levels of atoms and molecules -- 12.1.2 Quantum ratio -- 12.2 Partial population inversion between vibrational energy levels of molecules -- 12.3 Physics of the CO[sup(2)]laser -- 12.3.1 Levels and lifetimes -- 12.3.2 The effect of adding N[sup(2)] -- 12.3.3 Effect of adding He -- 12.4 CO[sup(2)] laser parameters -- 12.5 Low-pressure c.w. CO[sup(2)] lasers -- 12.6 High-pressure pulsed CO[sup(†)] lasers -- 12.7 Other types of CO[sup(2)] laser -- 12.7.1 Gas-dynamic CO[sup(2)]lasers -- 12.7.2 Waveguide CO[sup(2)] lasers -- 12.8 Applications of CO[sup(2)] lasers -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 13 Ultraviolet molecular gas lasers -- 13.1 The UV and VUV spectral regions -- 13.2 Energy levels of diatomic molecules -- 13.2.1 Separation of the overall wave function -- 13.2.2 Vibrational eigenfunctions -- 13.3 Electronic transitions in diatomic molecules: The Franck-Condon principle -- 13.3.1 Absorption transitions -- 13.3.2 The 'Franck-Condon loop' -- 13.4 The VUV hydrogen laser -- 13.5 The UV nitrogen laser -- 13.6 Excimer molecules -- 13.7 Rare-gas excimer lasers -- 13.8 Rare-gas halide excimer lasers -- 13.8.1 Spectroscopy of the rare-gas halides -- 13.8.2 Rare-gas halide laser design -- 13.8.3 Pulse-length limitations of discharge-excited RGH lasers -- 13.8.4 Cavity design and beam properties of RHG lasers -- 13.8.5 Performance and applications of RGH excimer laser -- Further reading -- Exercises -- 14 Dye lasers -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Dye molecules -- 14.3 Energy levels and spectra of dye molecules in solution -- 14.3.1 Energy-level scheme -- 14.3.2 Singlet-singlet absorption -- 14.3.3 Singlet-singlet emission spectra. , 14.3.4 Triplet-triplet absorption.