Note: Air Pollutant Deposition and Its Effects on Natural Resources in New York State -- Contents -- List of Figures -- List of Plates -- List of Tables -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- List of Acronyms and Abbreviations -- Chapter 1. Background and Purpose -- 1.1. Atmospheric Deposition in New York -- 1.2. Air Quality Management -- 1.2.1. Clean Air Act -- 1.2.2. Regional Haze Rule -- 1.2.3. Federal Water Pollution Control Act -- 1.2.4. Other Legislation -- 1.3. Ecosystem Functions and Services -- 1.4. Goals and Objectives -- Chapter 2. Resource Sensitivity to Atmospheric Deposition -- 2.1. Geology -- 2.2. Soils -- 2.3. Forest Vegetation -- 2.4. Hydrology and Hydrodynamics -- 2.5. Wetlands -- 2.6. Surface Water -- 2.6.1. Streams and Lakes -- 2.6.1.1. Acid-Base Chemistry -- 2.6.1.2. Nutrients -- 2.6.2. Estuaries and Near-Coastal Marine Waters -- Chapter 3. Principal Stressors -- 3.1. Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Mercury Emissions and Deposition -- 3.1.1. Sulfur Emissions and Deposition -- 3.1.1.1. Sulfur Emissions into the Atmosphere -- 3.1.1.2. Sulfur Deposition -- 3.1.2. Nitrogen Oxide and Ammonia Emissions and Deposition -- 3.1.2.1. Nitrogen Emissions into the Atmosphere -- 3.1.2.2. Nitrogen Deposition and Other Watershed N Sources -- 3.1.3. Mercury Emissions and Deposition -- 3.1.3.1. Mercury Emissions into the Atmosphere -- 3.1.3.2. Mercury Deposition -- 3.2. Watershed Disturbance -- 3.2.1. Timber Harvest and Fire -- 3.2.2. Land Use Change -- 3.2.3. Invasive Species -- 3.2.4. Other Disturbances -- 3.2.5. Multiple Stress Response -- 3.3. Mercury Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification -- 3.4. Climate Change -- 3.4.1. Influence of Soil Freezing on N Cycling -- 3.4.2. Extreme Events -- Chapter 4. Chemical Effects of Atmospheric Deposition -- 4.1. Sulfur -- 4.1.1. Upland Sulfur Cycling Processes -- 4.1.2. Wetland Sulfur Cycling Processes. , 4.1.3. Surface Water Sulfur Cycling Processes -- 4.2. Nitrogen -- 4.2.1. Upland Nitrogen Cycling Processes -- 4.2.2. Wetland Nitrogen Cycling Processes -- 4.2.3. Fresh Surface Water Nitrogen Cycling Processes -- 4.2.4. Coastal Nitrogen Cycling Processes -- 4.2.5. Nitrogen Saturation -- 4.3. Dissolved Organic Carbon -- 4.3.1. Upland Processes -- 4.3.2. Wetland Processes -- 4.3.3. Surface Water Processes -- 4.4. Base Cations and Aluminum -- 4.4.1. Upland Processes -- 4.4.2. Wetland and Surface Water Processes -- 4.5. Acid-Base Interactions -- 4.5.1. Soil-Water Interactions -- 4.5.2. Upland Processes -- 4.5.3. Base Cation Depletion -- 4.5.4. Wetland and Surface Water Processes -- 4.5.4.1. Chronic Acidification Processes -- 4.5.4.2. Episodic Acidification Processes -- 4.6. Nutrient Interactions -- 4.6.1. Terrestrial Effects -- 4.6.2. Wetland Effects -- 4.6.3. Surface Water Effects -- 4.6.3.1. High Elevation Lakes -- 4.6.3.2. Great Lakes -- 4.6.3.3. Coastal Waters -- 4.7. Mercury Interactions -- 4.7.1. Upland Processes -- 4.7.2. Wetland Processes -- 4.7.3. Surface Water Processes -- Chapter 5. Biotic Effects of Atmospheric Deposition -- 5.1. Terrestrial Resource Response to Acidification, Eutrophication and Mercury Input -- 5.1.1. Red Spruce Response to Acidification -- 5.1.2. Sugar Maple Response to Acidification -- 5.1.3. Vegetation Response to Nitrogen Supply -- 5.1.4. Avian Response to Acidification -- 5.1.5. Mercury Methylation -- 5.1.6. Effects of Mercury on Humans -- 5.2. Effects on the Biology of Freshwater Ecosystems -- 5.2.1. Phytoplankton -- 5.2.2. Zooplankton -- 5.2.3. Benthic Macroinvertebrates -- 5.2.4. Fish -- 5.2.4.1. Effects of Acidification on Fish -- 5.2.4.2. Effects of Mercury on Fish -- 5.2.4.3. Effects of Environmental Factors on Mercury Bioaccumulation in Fish -- 5.2.5. Fish-Eating Birds and Mammals -- 5.2.5.1. Fish-Eating Birds. , 5.2.5.2. Fish-Eating Mammals -- 5.2.6. Other Life Forms -- 5.2.7. Community Metrics -- 5.2.7.1. Taxonomic Richness -- 5.2.7.2. Indices of Biotic Integrity -- 5.3. Effects on Coastal Aquatic Biota -- 5.3.1. Phytoplankton in Coastal Waters -- 5.3.2. Submerged Aquatic Vegetation -- 5.3.3. Shellfish and Fish -- Chapter 6. Historical Patterns of Effects -- 6.1. Paleoecological Studies -- 6.2. Watershed Model Hindcast Studies -- 6.3. Recent Trends in Monitoring Data -- 6.3.1. Wet and Dry Deposition -- 6.3.2. Soils -- 6.3.3. Surface Waters -- 6.3.3.1. Chemistry -- 6.3.3.2. Biology -- Chapter 7. Extrapolation of Site-Specific Data to the Broader Region -- 7.1. Methods of Regionalization -- 7.2. Regionalization of Survey Data -- 7.3. Regionalization of Long-Term Monitoring Data -- Chapter 8. Projected Future Responses of Sensitive Resources to Reductions in Acidic Atmospheric Deposition -- 8.1. Modeling Approaches -- 8.1.1. MAGIC -- 8.1.2. PnET-BGC -- 8.1.3. SPARROW -- 8.1.4. WATERSN -- 8.1.5. ASSETS -- 8.2. Projections Based on Existing and Future Emissions Controls -- Chapter 9. Critical Load -- 9.1. Approaches -- 9.2. Critical- and Target-Load Calculations -- 9.3. Utility to Policy Makers -- 9.4. Linkages to Biological Response -- Chapter 10. Climate Linkages -- 10.1. Temperature -- 10.2. Water Quantity and Quality -- Chapter 11. Linkages with Ecosystem Services -- 11.1. Forest and Freshwater Aquatic Resources -- 11.2. Coastal Resources -- Chapter 12. Active Intervention -- Chapter 13. Summary and Important Data Gaps and Recommendations -- Glossary -- References Cited -- About the Author -- Plates are at the end of the book.

Note: Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Dedication -- Table of Contents -- List of Figures -- List of Tables -- Preface -- Acronyms and Abbreviations -- Acknowledgments -- Author -- Section I: Background -- 1: Introduction -- References -- 2: Pollutant Exposure -- 2.1 Emissions -- 2.2 Deposition -- 2.2.1 Wet Deposition -- 2.2.2 Dry Deposition -- 2.2.3 Total Wet Plus Dry Deposition -- 2.2.4 Occult Deposition -- 2.3 Ozone Production and Dispersion -- 2.4 Mechanism of Exposure to Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants -- 2.4.1 Mercury -- 2.4.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants -- References -- 3: Impacts -- 3.1 Acidification -- 3.1.1 Terrestrial Effects -- 3.1.1.1 Aluminum Mobilization -- 3.1.1.2 Depletion of Base Cations from Soil -- 3.1.2 Aquatic Effects -- 3.1.3 Spatial Patterns in Acidification Risk -- 3.2 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 3.2.1 Terrestrial Effects -- 3.2.2 Aquatic Effects -- 3.2.3 Nitrogen Saturation -- 3.3 Critical Load and Exceedance -- 3.4 Ozone Exposure and Effects -- 3.4.1 Effects of Ozone on Plants -- 3.4.2 Standards and Cumulative Exposure Indices -- 3.4.3 Mode of Action -- 3.4.4 Field Observations -- 3.4.5 Environmental Interactions -- 3.4.6 Spatial Patterns in Ozone Effects -- 3.5 Visibility Impairment -- 3.5.1 Sources of Visibility Degradation -- 3.5.2 Visibility Metrics -- 3.5.3 Visibility Monitoring -- 3.5.3.1 Particle Monitoring -- 3.5.3.2 Optical Monitoring -- 3.5.3.3 View Monitoring -- 3.5.3.4 Regional Haze Rule -- 3.5.3.5 Spatial Patterns in Visibility Impairment -- 3.6 Effects of Exposure to Airborne Toxics -- 3.6.1 Toxic Substances of Concern for This Book -- 3.6.2 Biomagnification -- 3.6.3 Effects of Atmospherically Deposited Toxic Substances -- 3.6.3.1 Effects on Fish -- 3.6.3.2 Effects on Humans -- 3.6.3.3 Effects on Piscivorous Wildlife -- 3.6.4 Spatial Patterns in Exposure to Toxic Substances. , 3.6.4.1 Mercury -- 3.6.4.2 Semivolatile Organic Compounds -- References -- Section II: Case Studies -- 4: Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Appalachian Highlands Network -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 4.3 Acidification -- 4.3.1 Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 4.3.2 Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems -- 4.3.2.1 Episodic Acidification -- 4.3.2.2 Effects on Aquatic Biota -- 4.4 Nutrient Enrichment -- 4.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 4.5.1 Ozone Formation -- 4.5.2 Ozone-Sensitive Plants -- 4.5.3 Ozone Exposure Indices and Levels -- 4.5.3.1 Field Surveys of Foliar Injury -- 4.5.3.2 Model Responses -- 4.6 Visibility Degradation -- 4.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 4.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 4.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 4.7 Summary -- References -- 5: Shenandoah National Park and the Mid-Atlantic Network -- 5.1 Background -- 5.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 5.3 Acidification -- 5.3.1 Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 5.3.2 Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems -- 5.3.2.1 Episodic Acidification -- 5.3.2.2 Effects on Aquatic Biota -- 5.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 5.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 5.5.1 Ozone Exposure Indices and Levels -- 5.5.2 Ozone Formation -- 5.5.3 Ozone Exposure Effects -- 5.6 Visibility Degradation -- 5.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 5.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 5.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 5.6.4 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 5.7 Summary -- References -- 6: Acadia National Park and the Northeast Temperate Network -- 6.1 Background -- 6.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 6.3 Acidification -- 6.3.1 Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 6.3.2 Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems -- 6.3.2.1 Status -- 6.3.2.2 Past Trends -- 6.3.2.3 Critical Loads for Acidification. , 6.3.2.4 Temporal Variability in Water Chemistry -- 6.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 6.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 6.6 Visibility Degradation -- 6.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 6.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 6.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 6.6.4 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 6.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 6.8 Summary -- References -- 7: South Florida/Caribbean Network -- 7.1 Background -- 7.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 7.3 Acidification -- 7.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 7.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 7.6 Visibility Degradation -- 7.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 7.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 7.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 7.6.4 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 7.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 7.8 Summary -- References -- 8: Great Lakes Network -- 8.1 Background -- 8.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 8.3 Acidification -- 8.3.1 Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 8.3.2 Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems -- 8.3.2.1 Status -- 8.3.2.2 Trends -- 8.4 Nutrient Enrichment -- 8.4.1 Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 8.4.2 Transitional Ecosystems -- 8.4.3 Great Lakes Ecosystems -- 8.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 8.6 Visibility Degradation -- 8.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 8.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 8.6.3 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 8.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 8.7.1 Hg in Fish -- 8.7.2 Piscivorous Wildlife -- 8.7.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants -- 8.8 Summary -- References -- 9: Mammoth Cave National Park and the Cumberland Piedmont Network -- 9.1 Background -- 9.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 9.3 Acidification -- 9.3.1 Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 9.3.2 Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems -- 9.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 9.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation. , 9.5.1 Ozone Exposure Indices and Concentrations -- 9.5.2 Ozone Formation -- 9.6 Visibility Degradation -- 9.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 9.6.2 Trends in Visibility -- 9.6.3 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 9.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 9.8 Summary -- References -- 10: Northern Colorado Plateau Network -- 10.1 Background -- 10.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 10.3 Acidification -- 10.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 10.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 10.6 Visibility Impairment -- 10.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 10.6.2 Composition of Haze and Sources of Visibility Impairment -- 10.6.3 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 10.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 10.8 Summary -- References -- 11: The Grand Canyon and the Southern Colorado Plateau Network -- 11.1 Background -- 11.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 11.3 Acidification -- 11.3.1 Effects on Natural Ecosystems -- 11.3.2 Effects on Historic Structures -- 11.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 11.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 11.6 Visibility Impairment -- 11.6.1 Natural Background and Ambient Visibility Conditions -- 11.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 11.6.3 Sources of Visibility Impairment in the Southern Colorado Plateau Network -- 11.6.4 Visibility Research at GRCA -- 11.6.5 Trends in Visibility -- 11.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 11.8 Summary -- References -- 12: Coast and Cascades Network -- 12.1 Background -- 12.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 12.2.1 Emissions -- 12.2.2 Deposition -- 12.3 Acidification -- 12.3.1 Acidification Risk Analysis Results -- 12.3.2 Chronic Surface Acid-Base Chemistry -- 12.3.3 Temporal Variability in Water Chemistry -- 12.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 12.4.1 Terrestrial Effects of Nutrient Enrichment -- 12.4.2 Aquatic Effects of Nutrient Enrichment. , 12.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 12.6 Visibility Degradation -- 12.6.1 Natural Background Visibility and Monitored Visibility Conditions -- 12.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 12.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 12.6.4 State of Washington Regional Haze State Implementation Plan -- 12.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 12.8 Summary -- References -- 13: Klamath Network -- 13.1 Background -- 13.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 13.3 Acidification -- 13.3.1 Acidification of Terrestrial Ecosystems -- 13.3.2 Acidification of Aquatic Ecosystems -- 13.3.2.1 Episodic Acidification -- 13.3.2.2 Effects on Aquatic Biota -- 13.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 13.4.1 Aquatic Ecosystem Nutrient Enrichment -- 13.4.2 Terrestrial Ecosystem Nutrient Enrichment -- 13.5 Ozone Injury to Vegetation -- 13.5.1 Ozone Exposure Indices and Levels -- 13.5.2 Ozone Formation -- 13.5.3 Ozone Exposure Effects -- 13.5.3.1 Field Survey Results -- 13.5.3.2 Model Responses -- 13.6 Visibility Degradation -- 13.6.1 Natural Background Visibility and Monitored Visibility Conditions -- 13.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 13.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 13.6.4 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 13.7 Toxic Airborne Contaminants -- 13.8 Summary -- References -- 14: Hawaii -- 14.1 Background -- 14.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 14.3 Acidification -- 14.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 14.5 Sulfur Dioxide Injury to Vegetation -- 14.6 Visibility Degradation -- 14.6.1 Natural Background Visibility and Monitored Visibility Conditions -- 14.6.2 Composition of Haze -- 14.6.3 Trends in Visibility -- 14.6.4 Development of State Implementation Plans -- 14.7 Summary -- References -- 15: Mojave Desert -- 15.1 Background -- 15.2 Atmospheric Emissions and Deposition -- 15.3 Acidification -- 15.4 Nutrient Nitrogen Enrichment -- 15.4.1 Risk Ranking -- 15.4.2 Field Studies. , 15.4.3 Modeling Studies.

Note: Nanoparticles in Anti-Microbial Materials -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Nanoparticles: What Are They? -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Nano, the Beginning to the Present -- 1.3 Defining the Nanodimension -- 1.4 Physical Chemistry of Nanoparticles -- 1.4.1 Structure -- 1.4.2 Electrical Properties -- 1.4.3 Catalytic Properties -- 1.4.4 Mechanical Properties -- 1.4.5 Surface Plasmon Resonance -- 1.4.6 Anti-microbial Properties -- 1.5 Preparation Methods -- 1.5.1 Nucleation and Growth -- 1.5.2 Synthetic Routes -- 1.6 Applications of Nanoparticles -- 1.6.1 Chemical Sensors -- 1.6.2 Malaria Detection -- 1.6.3 Fluorescent Colloids in Biotechnology -- 1.6.4 Anti-microbial Agents -- 1.6.5 Emerging Approaches -- 1.7 Toxicity and Nanomaterials -- 1.7.1 Size Specific Behavior of Nanoparticles -- 1.7.2 Quantum Dot Toxicity -- 1.7.3 Concepts of Toxicology of Nanomaterials -- 1.7.4 Nanoparticle entry and Target -- 1.7.5 Risk Assessments -- 1.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2 Microbial Impacts on Surfaces -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Mechanisms of Adhesion -- 2.2.1 DLVO Theory -- 2.2.2 Thermodynamic Theory -- 2.2.3 Extended DLVO Theory -- 2.3 Further Influential Factors for Microbial Impact -- 2.3.1 Environmental Impacts -- 2.3.2 Flow Adhesion Characterisation -- 2.3.3 Material Surface Impacts -- 2.3.4 Microbial Response to the Nano-surface -- 2.3.5 Specific Influences -- 2.4 Bacterial Responses to a Surface -- 2.5 Bacterial Characteristics -- 2.5.1 Hydrophobicity -- 2.5.2 Surface Charge -- 2.5.3 Shape -- 2.5.4 Attached Matrix of Cells -- 2.5.5 Formation of Biofilms -- 2.5.6 Novel Approaches to Combat Microbial Impact -- 2.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3 Applications of Nanoparticles -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Silver Through the Ages -- 3.2.1 Renewed Interest in Silver -- 3.2.2 Anti-microbial Silver: How It Works. , 3.2.3 Molecular Understanding and Modes of Action -- 3.2.4 Silver in Coatings and Polymers -- 3.3 Silver in Materials -- 3.3.1 Medical Devices Containing Silver -- 3.3.2 Release Materials Containing Silver -- 3.3.3 Silver Wound Dressings -- 3.3.4 Textiles Containing Silver -- 3.3.5 Water Treatment and Silver -- 3.3.6 Applications and Emerging Trends -- 3.4 Novel and Emerging Nanomaterials for Anti-microbial Applications -- 3.4.1 Food Packaging -- 3.4.2 Health Effects -- 3.4.3 Gold Nanoparticles -- 3.4.4 Metal Oxides -- 3.4.5 Applications in Disease -- 3.4.6 Biosensing -- 3.5 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4 Characterisation of Materials Using Quantitative Approaches -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Characterisation Techniques -- 4.2.1 X-ray Absorption Spectroscopies: Theory and Application -- 4.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis -- 4.2.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Analysis -- 4.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy -- 4.2.6 UV-Visible Spectroscopy -- 4.2.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis -- 4.2.8 Differential scanning calorimetry -- 4.2.9 Mass Spectrometry -- 4.2.10 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) -- 4.2.11 Photoelectron Spectroscopy -- 4.2.12 Spectral Comparisons -- 4.2.13 Atomic Absorption and Inductively Coupled Plasma -- 4.2.14 Dynamic Light Scattering -- 4.2.15 Mössbauer Spectroscopy -- 4.3 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5 Visualisation of Nano-anti-microbial Materials -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Approaches to Visualisation of Anti-microbial Nanomaterials -- 5.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) and Nanomaterial Characterisation -- 5.4 AFM and Nanomaterial Characterisation -- 5.5 Practical Advantages of AFM for Characterisation of Anti-microbial Materials -- 5.6 Electron Microscopy Techniques -- 5.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy and Nano-anti-microbial Characterisation -- 5.7.1 Sample Preparation for SEM. , 5.7.2 Novel Variants of SEM for Nano-anti-microbial Analysis -- 5.7.3 Field Emission SEM for Material Characterisation -- 5.8 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) -- 5.8.1 High Resolution TEM (HRTEM), STEM and HAADF STEM -- 5.9 EM Tomography and 3D Reconstruction -- 5.9.1 Sample Preparation for TEM and STEM techniques -- 5.10 Confocal Microscopy and Optical Sectioning -- 5.11 Emerging and Future Techniques for Material Visualisation -- 5.12 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6 Biological Methods for Characterisation of Nano-anti-microbial Materials -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Biological Assessment of Anti-microbial Materials -- 6.2.1 Principle Methods of Anti-microbial Activity Assessment -- 6.2.2 Minimum Inhibitory and Bactericidal Concentration Bioassays for Assessment of Anti-microbial Activity -- 6.2.3 Relevance of MIC Determination for Nano-anti-microbial Materials -- 6.2.4 Plate Counts and Anti-microbial Activity -- 6.2.5 Time-Kill Assays -- 6.2.6 Automated Microplate Methods for Assessment of Anti-microbial Activity -- 6.2.7 Disk Diffusion-Based Assays for Determination of in vitro Anti-microbial Activity -- 6.2.8 Assessing Anti-microbial Activity Using Flow Cytometry -- 6.2.9 Fluorescence Detection and Flow Cytometry -- 6.3 Fluorescence Microscopy Methods for Biological Characterization of Nano-anti-microbial Materials -- 6.3.1 Basic Principles of Fluorescence Microscopy -- 6.3.2 Excitation Sources in Fluorescence Microscopy -- 6.3.3 Applications of Fluorescence Microscopy to Nano-anti-microbial Materials -- 6.3.4 Choice of Fluorophores for Assessment of Nano-anti-microbials -- 6.3.5 Differential Membrane Permeability Staining -- 6.3.6 Multiphoton Fluorescence Microscopy and Anti-microbial Materials -- 6.3.7 Assessing the Cytotoxicity of Nano-Anti-microbials towards Eukaryotic Cell Lines -- 6.4 Conclusions -- References. , Chapter 7 Molecular Biological Techniques -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 What is Molecular Biology? -- 7.3 What is DNA? -- 7.4 What is RNA? -- 7.5 Molecular Biological Techniques -- 7.5.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) -- 7.5.2 Reverse Transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) -- 7.5.3 Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction -- 7.5.4 Hybridisation -- 7.5.5 In situ Hybridisation -- 7.5.6 Fluorescence in situ Hybridisation -- 7.5.7 FISH Probes -- 7.5.8 SAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression) -- 7.5.9 Microarrays and Gene Chips -- 7.5.10 Advances Using Lab-on-a-Chip or Microfluidic Devices -- 7.5.11 Bioinformatics -- 7.6 Quorum Sensing -- 7.7 Phylogenetic Stains -- 7.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8 Conclusions -- Subject Index.