Note: Front Cover -- Response of Plants to Multiple Stresses -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Part I: Structure, Function, and Resources -- Chapter 1. Leaves as Regulators of Stress Response -- I. Introduction -- II. Leaf Regulation of Shoot Morphological Development -- III. Leaf Regulation of Carbon Allocation -- IV. Autonomy: The Relation of Plant Parts to the Whole System -- V. Response to Environmental Stress -- VI. The Shoot-Root Connection -- VII. Whole-Plant Physiological-Process Models -- References -- Chapter 2. Ecological Scaling of Carbon Gain to Stress and Resource Availability -- I. Scaling and Stress -- II. Ecological Consistencies -- III. Evidence from Three Levels of Organization -- IV. Integration across Levels -- References -- Chapter 3. Effects of Multiple Environmental Stresses on Nutrient Availability and Use -- I. Introduction -- II. Nutrient Availability -- III. Uptake and Assimilation -- IV. Nutrient Loss -- V. Nutrient Stress and the Susceptibility of Plants to Other Stresses -- VI. General Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4. Water and Nutrient Interactions with Plant Water Stress -- I. Introduction -- II. Coupling Leaf Water Potential to Transpiration -- III. Changes in Resources within a Plant under Water Stress -- IV. Acquisition of Water from the Soil -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5. Carbon Allocation and Response to Stress -- I. Introduction -- II. Carbon Allocation in Plant Growth -- III. Acclimation to Stress -- IV. Allocation and Acclimation -- V. Allocation and the Responses to Specific Stresses -- VI. Maintaining Source-Sink Balance -- VII. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6. Partitioning Response of Plants to Stress -- I. Introduction -- II. Approaches to the Problem -- III. The Set-Point Argument -- IV. Linking Resource Partitioning with Growth Rates. , V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7. Growth Rate, Habitat Productivity, and Plant Strategy as Predictors of Stress Response -- I. Introduction -- II. Growth Rate, Productivity, and Plant Niches -- III. Low Productivity, Slow Growth, and Stress Tolerance -- IV. The Habitat Templet and Primary Plant Strategies -- V. Morphological Plasticity and Cellular Acclimation -- VI. Stress Responses and Resource Foraging -- VII. Stored Growth -- VIII. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8. Stress Effects on Plant Reproduction -- I. Introduction -- II. Windows of Sensitivity -- III. Resource Limitation of Reproduction -- IV. Tolerance and Avoidance of Environmental Stress -- V. Plasticity of Relative and Total Yield -- VI. Other Forms of Whole-Plant Integration -- VII. Yield Components -- VIII. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9. Multiple Stress-Induced Foliar Senescence and Implications for Whole-Plant Longevity -- I. Introduction -- II. Foliar Senescence: A Molecular Sequence of Events -- III. Whole-Plant Senescence -- References -- Chapter 10. Modelling Integrated Response of Plants to Multiple Stresses -- I. Modelling Compromises -- II. Adaptive Growth Processes -- III. Model Design Using Cyclic Processes -- IV. A Simplified Model of Allocation under Multiple Stresses -- V. Holism versus Reductionism in Plant Growth Modelling -- VI. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Part II: Biotic Interactions -- Chapter 11. Growth Responses Induced by Pathogens and Other Stresses -- I. Introduction -- II. Cellular Interactions and Responses to Injury -- III. Integrated Growth Responses -- IV. Pathogens and Plant Populations -- V. General Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 12. Plant Stress and Insect Herbivory: Toward an Integrated Perspective -- I. Integrating Plant Stress and Insect Herbivory -- II. A Conceptual Framework for Integration. , III. Predicting Insect Responses to Stressed Plants -- IV. Toward Further Integration -- V. Summary and Conclusion -- References -- Part III: Plant Growth Forms -- Chapter 13. Annual Plants: Potential Responses to Multiple Stresses -- I. Introduction -- II. Annuals: Definition, Distribution, and Evolutionary History -- III. Potential for Annuals to Respond to Stress -- IV. Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 14. Dryland Herbaceous Perennials -- I. Drylands and Herbaceous Perennials -- II. Water Loss versus Carbon Gain -- III. Halomorphic Soils -- IV. Osmotic Adjustment -- V. Growth Balances and Adaptation to Dryland Habitats -- VI. Nutrient and Water Interactions -- VII. Grazing and Fire -- VIII. Interactions among Water, Nutrients, and Defoliation in the Laboratory -- IX. Dryland Ecosystems: Are They Water Limited? -- X. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 15. Interactive Role of Stresses on Structure and Function in Aquatic Plants -- I. Introduction -- II. Stresses in the Aquatic Environment -- III. Effect of Stresses on Macrophyte Structure and Function -- IV. Structural Effects on Photosynthetic Performance -- V. Interactive Stresses, Structure, Function, and Plant Productivity -- VI. Perturbations and Predictions of Community Composition -- VII. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 16. Shrub Life-Forms -- I. Introduction -- II. Evolution of the Shrub Life-Form -- III. Shrub Distribution and Floristic Dominance -- IV. Adaptation to Diverse Habitats -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 17. Responses of Evergreen Trees to Multiple Stresses -- I. Introduction -- II. Photosynthetic Activity -- III. Respiration -- IV. Partitioning -- V. Susceptibility to Symbionts, Pathogens, and Herbivores -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 18. Effects of Environmental Stresses on Deciduous Trees -- I. Introduction -- II. Abscission. , III. Growth Patterns -- IV. Carbohydrate Relations -- V. Responses to Environmental Stresses -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Ecophysiology of Coniferous Forests -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1. Genetics and the Physiological Ecology of Conifers -- I. Conifers Have High Levels of Genetic Variation -- II. Patterns of Geographic Variation -- III. Ecological and Evolutionary Significance of the Genetic Variation -- IV. Natural Selection -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 2. Long-Term Records of Growth and Distribution of Conifers: Integration of Paleoecology and Physiological Ecology -- I. Introduction -- II. Climatic Variation -- III. Vegetation Responses -- IV. Implications for Ecophysiological Studies -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3. Plant Hormones and Ecophysiology of Conifers -- I. Introduction -- II. Quantification of Plant Growth Regulators -- III. A Role for Plant Growth Regulator Biologists in Physiological Plant Ecology? -- IV. Chemical Signaling in Woody Plants -- V. A General Model for Chemical Regulation of Stomatal Behavior, Water Relations, and Development of Plants in the Field -- VI. Importance of Sensitivity Variation and Involvement of ABA in Stomatal Response to Climatic Variables -- VII. Regulation of Growth and Development: A Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 4. Ecophysiological Controls of Conifer Distributions -- I. Introduction -- II. Climatic Limits -- III. The Xylem -- IV. Growth -- V. Beyond the Boreal Zone -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5. Physiological Processes during Winter Dormancy and Their Ecological Significance -- I. Introduction -- II. The Coniferous Forest Zone -- III. Frost Resistance -- IV. Winter Water Relations -- V. Carbon Metabolism in Winter -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 6. Ecophysiology and Insect Herbivory -- I. Acquisition and Allocation of Nutrients (Sugars, Nitrogen, Minerals) -- II. Water Relations. , III. Carbon Acquisition and Allocation -- IV. Conclusions: Effects of Herbivory on Conifer Forest Ecology -- References -- Chapter 7. Leaf Area Dynamics of Conifer Forests -- I. Introduction -- II. Leaf Area: Structural and Functional Relationships -- III. Leaf Area Dynamics -- IV. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 8. Causes and Consequences of Variation in Conifer Leaf Life-Span -- I. Introduction -- II. Variation in Leaf Life-Span -- III. Relationship of Leaf Life-Span to Leaf, Plant, and Ecosystem Traits -- IV. Summary -- References -- Chapter 9. Response Mechanisms of Conifers to Air Pollutants -- I. Introduction -- II. O3 Uptake and Impacts at Leaf to Cellular Tissue Scales -- III. Organ Differentiation and Senescencein the Presence of O3 -- IV. Scaling from the Leaf to the Whole-Plant Level -- V. Responses to O3 under Multiple Stress Interaction Scenarios -- VI. Scaling to Understand Mature Tree or Stand Level Responses -- VII. Models That Incorporate O3 Effects -- VIII. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 10. Potential Effects of Global Climate Change -- I. Introduction -- II. Effects on and Responses of Conifers and Coniferous Forests -- III. Direct Effects of Elevated CO2 -- IV. Large-Scale Responses of Coniferous Forests to Climate Change -- V. Pools and Flux of Carbon in Coniferous Biomes -- VI. Final Comments -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Index -- Physiological Ecology.

Note: Front Cover -- Exploitation of Environmental Heterogeneity by Plants: Ecophysiological Processes Above- and Belowground -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1. The Role of Plasticity in Exploiting Environmental Heterogeneity -- I. Introduction -- II. Distribution of Resources within Habitats -- III. Interdependence of Photosynthesis and Mineral Nutrient Capture -- IV. Covariance in Root and Shoot Size and Function -- V. Resource Heterogeneity and Community Structure -- VI. Complicating Factors -- VII. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2. The Physical Nature of Solar Radiation in Heterogeneous Canopies: Spatial and Temporal Attributes -- I. Introduction -- II. Measurement and Sampling Principles -- III. Modeling and Analysis Methods -- IV. Spatial Variability of Solar Radiation in Plant Canopies -- V. Temporal Variability of Light in Plant Canopies -- VI. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 3. Light Gaps: Sensing the Light Opportunities in Highly Dynamic Canopy Environments -- I. Introduction -- II. Sensing and Responding to Light Opportunities -- III. Competition for Light during Early Succession -- IV. Signals, "Decisions," and Models of Plant Competition -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 4. Canopy Gaps: Competitive Light Interception and Economic Space Filling-A Matter of Whole-Plant Allocation -- I. Introduction -- II. Carbon Allocation and Height Growth: An Example of Two Eucalypts -- III. Canopy Architecture in Space Exploitation during Secondary Succession -- IV. General Discussion -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5. Photosynthetic Acclimation to Changing Light Environments: Scaling from the Leaf to the Whole Plant -- I. Introduction -- II. Photosynthetic Acclimation of Leaves to Light -- III. Respiratory Costs o f Sun- and Shade -Acclimated Leaves. , IV. Sensitivity to Photoinhibition -- V. Dynamics of Acclimation -- VI. Costs and Benefits of Light Acclimation -- VII. Scaling Up the Consequences of Acclimation to Whole-Plant Performance -- VIII. Discussion -- References -- Chapter 6. Photosynthetic Utilization of Sunflecks: A Temporally Patchy Resource on a Time Scale of Seconds to Minutes -- I. Introduction -- II. Sunflecks as a Patchy Resource in Space and Time -- III. Responses of Leaf Gas Exchange to Sunflecks -- IV. Physiological and Biochemical Mechanisms Governing the Use of Sunflecks -- V. Photosynthesis in Natural Sunfleck Regimes -- VI. Modeling the Response to Sunflecks -- VII. Long-Term Effects of Sunfleck Activity: Carbon Balance and Growth -- VIII. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7. Signals for Seeds to Sense and Respond to Gaps -- I. Introduction -- II. Gaps and Plant Communities -- III. Environmentally Enforced Dormancy of Seeds -- IV. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8. Assessing the Heterogeneity of Belowground Resources: Quantifying Pattern and Scale -- I. Introduction -- II. Detecting Spatial Dependence : Autocorrelation Analysis -- III. Characterizing Pattern: Kriging -- IV. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9. Causes of Soil Nutrient Heterogeneity at Different Scales -- I. Introduction -- II. Which Soil Heterogeneity Is Important? -- III. Factors Affecting General Soil Characteristics -- IV. Factors Regulating Nutrient Pool Sizes -- V. Diffusion-Reaction Equations for Describing Nutrient Patch Dynamics -- VI. Concluding Remarks -- Chapter 10. Root-Soil Responses to Water Pulses in Dry Environments -- I. Introduction -- II. Root Hydraulic Conductivity Coefficient -- III. Soil Hydraulic Conductivity Coefficient -- IV. Root-Soil Air Gap -- V. Overall Conductance -- VI. Responses to a Drying Pulse -- VII. Responses to a Wetting Pulse -- VIII. Conclusions. , References -- Chapter 11. Architecture and Biomass Allocation as Components of the Plastic Response of Root Systems to Soil Heterogeneity -- I. Summary -- II. Introduction: Received Wisdom -- III. Some Speculations -- IV. On Patches -- V. Experimental Tests -- References -- Chapter 12. Exploiting Nutrients in Fertile Soil Microsites -- I. Introduction -- II. Root Distributions and "Foraging" Responses -- III. Root Uptake Kinetics and Local Soil Fertility -- IV. Root Exudates in Fertile Patches -- V. Acquisition of Nutrients from Patches and Pulses -- VI. Interactions between Shoots and Roots in a Variable Environment -- VII. Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 13. Coping with Environmental Heterogeneity: The Physiological Ecology of Tree Seedling Regeneration across the Gap-Understory Continuum -- I. Introduction -- II. Spatial and Temporal Aspects of Environmental Heterogeneity -- III. Environmental Variation across the Gap-Understory Continuum in the Harvard Forest -- IV. Responses of Seedlings to the Gap-Understory Continuum -- V. Environmental Heterogeneity and Tree Seedling Plasticity -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 14. Spatial Heterogeneity at Small Scales and How Plants Respond to It -- I. Introduction -- II. Interrelated Concepts of Plasticity -- III. Evolutionary Ecology of Plasticity -- IV. Implications for Physiological Ecology -- V. A Fine-Scale Survey of Maple Seedlings -- VI. Physical Environment in the Forest Understory -- VII. Plant Response: The Best Measure of Environmental Variance -- VIII. Separation as an Estimate of Environmental Similarity or Difference -- IX. Nature of Plastic Responses to Environmental Heterogeneity -- X. Artificial Selection for Phenotypic Plasticity -- XI. Conclusions -- References -- Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Carbon Dioxide and Terrestrial Ecosystems -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1. Tree Responses to Elevated CO2 and Implications for Forests -- I. Introduction -- II. Experimental Approach -- III. Results -- IV. Discussion -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2. Effects of CO2 and N on Growth and N Dynamics in Ponderosa Pine: Results from the First Two Growing Seasons -- I. Introduction -- II. Site and Methods -- III. Results and Discussion -- IV. Perspective: Applicability of Results to Mature Forests -- V. Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 3. Linking Above- and Belowground Responses to Rising CO2 in Northern Deciduous Forest Species -- I. Introduction -- II. Study Site and Experimental Methods -- III. Results and Discussion -- IV. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 4. The Effects of Tree Maturity on Some Responses to Elevated CO2 in Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong. Carr.) -- I. Introduction -- II. Materials and Methods -- III. Results and Discussion -- IV. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5. Growth Strategy and Tree Responses to Elevated CO2: A Comparison of Beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) -- I. Introduction -- II. Materials and Methods -- III. Results -- IV. Discussion -- References -- Chapter 6. Litter Quality and Decomposition Rates of Foliar Litter Produced under CO2 Enrichment -- I. Introduction -- II. Litter Quality and the Decomposition Process -- III. CO2 Enrichment Effects on Litter Quality and Decomposition -- IV. A Few Words to the Wise Decomposer -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 7. CO2-Mediated Changes in Tree Chemistry and Tree-Lepidoptera Interactions -- I. Introduction -- II. Forest Lepidoptera -- III. Carbon-Nutrient Balance Theory: A Predictive Tool -- IV. Effects of Elevated CO2 on Tree Chemistry. , V. Effects on Insect Herbivores -- VI. Potential Community and Ecosystem Responses -- VII. Future Research Directions -- References -- Chapter 8. The Jasper Ridge CO2 Experiment: Design and Motivation -- I. Introduction -- II. The Challenge -- III. Jasper Ridge -- IV. The Suite of Experiments -- V. Experimental Facilities -- VI. Results -- VII. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 9. Ecosystem-Level Responses of Tallgrass Prairie to Elevated CO2 -- I. Introduction -- II. Study Site and Experimental Design -- III: Results and Discussion -- IV. Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10. Direct Effects of Elevated CO2 on Arctic Plant and Ecosystem Function -- I. Introduction -- II. Individual Plant Response to Elevated CO2 -- III. Ecosystem-Level Response to Elevated CO2 -- IV. Long-Term Ecosystem Response to Elevated CO2 -- V. Summary ancl Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 11. Response of Alpine Vegetation to Elevated CO2 -- I. Introduction -- II. Methods -- III. Results of Two Years of Field Experimentation -- IV. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 12. Long-Term Elevated CO2 Exposure in a Chesapeake Bay Wetland: Ecosystem Gas Exchange, Primary Production, and Tissue Nitrogen -- I. Introduction -- II. Results -- III. Discussion -- IV. Conclusions -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 13. Free-Air CO2 Enrichment: Responses of Cotton and Wheat Crops -- I. Introduction -- II. Materials and Methods -- III. Results and Discussion -- IV. Summary and Future Investigations -- Appendix -- References -- Chapter 14. Response of Growth and CO2 Uptake of Spring Wheat and Faba Bean to CO2 Concentration under Semifield Conditions: Comparing Results of Field Experiments and Simulations -- I. Introduction -- II. Materials and Methods -- III. Results -- IV. Discussion -- V. Summary and Conclusions -- References. , Chapter 15. Assessment of Rice Responses to Global Climate Change: CO2 and Temperature -- I. Introduction -- II. Materials and Methods: Outdoor, Sunlit, Controlled-Environment Chambers -- III. Results and Discussion -- IV. Conclusions and Research Recommendations -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 16. Interactions between CO2 and Nitrogen in Forests: Can We Extrapolate from the Seedling to the Stand Level? -- I. Introduction -- II. Nature of Nitrogen Cycling in Forests -- III. Potential Effects of Elevated CO2 on Nitrogen Cycling -- IV. What Do Seedling-Sapling Studies Tell Us about Ecosystem-Level Response? -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 17. Protection from Oxidative Stress in Trees as Affected by Elevated CO2 and Environmental Stress -- I. Introduction -- II. Detoxification of Reactive Oxygen Species -- III. Interactions of Environmental Stresses and Elevated CO2 -- IV. Summary -- References -- Chapter 18. Integrating Knowledge of Crop Responses to Elevated CO2 and Temperature with Mechanistic Simulation Models: Model Components and Research Needs -- I. Introduction -- II. Models -- III. Processes That Should Be Included in Models Used to Predict Crop Responses to Elevated CO2 -- IV. Knowledge Needs -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 19. Progress, Limitations, and Challenges in Modeling the Effects of Elevated CO2 on Plants and Ecosystems -- I. Introduction -- II. Leaf-Level Models -- III. Plant-Level Models -- IV. Population, Community, and Stand Models -- V. Ecosystem Models -- VI. Regional and Global Models -- VII. Future Challenges -- References -- Chapter 20. Stimulation of Global Photosynthetic Carbon Influx by an Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration -- I. Introduction -- II. The Model -- III. Results and Discussion -- IV. Summary -- Appendix -- References. , Chapter 21. Biota Growth Facter β: Stimulation of Terrestrial Ecosystem Net Primary Production by Elevated Atmospheric CO2 -- I. Introduction -- II. Modeling and Measuring Plant and Ecosystem Responses to Elevated CO2 -- III. Information Needs -- IV. Where Do We Stand with Respect to β? -- References -- Chapter 22. Response of Terrestrial Ecosystems to Elevated CO2: A Synthesis and Summary -- I. Cross-System Comparisons -- II. Future Research Needs -- III. Conclusions -- References -- Index -- Physiological Ecology: A Series of Monographs, Texts, and Treatises.

Note: Front Cover -- Scaling Physiological Processes: Leaf to Globe -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter 1. Introduction: Questions of Scale -- I. Scaling from Ecophysiology -- II. The Art of Scaling -- III. Some New Dimensions -- References -- Part I: Integrating Spatial Patterns -- Chapter 2. Concepts of Scale at the Local Level -- I. Introduction -- II. The Ecosystem as an Abstraction -- III. There Is No Correct Scale, but There May Be Scaling Laws -- IV. Relevance to Ecological Problems -- V. Theories and Bases for Scaling -- VI. Program for Research on Scaling in Terrestrial Systems -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 3. Spatial Information for Extrapolation of Canopy Processes: Examples from FIFE -- I. Introduction -- II. Experiment Overview -- III. A Priori Stratification -- IV. Digital Elevation Model-Based a Priori Stratification -- V. Regression-Tree Stratification -- VI. Scale Dependence in GVI and Terrain Variables -- VII. Spatial Analysis of Flux Measurements -- VIII. Lessons for Physiological Ecology -- IX. Conclusion -- X. Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part II: Leaf to Ecosystem Level Integration -- Chapter 4. Scaling Processes between Leaf and Canopy Levels -- I. Introduction -- II. What Is Scaling and Why Do It? -- III. Issues in Scaling from Leaf to Canopy -- IV. Can an Investigative Paradigm from Physics Be Applied Directly to Biology? -- V. Scaling in Fluid Dynamics -- VI. Comprehensive Plant-Environment Models -- VII. Examples of Scaling Leaf Photosynthesis to Canopy Photosynthesis -- VIII. Summary -- References -- Chapter 5. Scaling Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide Exchange from Leaves to a Canopy: Rules and Tools -- I. Introduction -- II. Literature Overview -- III. Basic Scaling Rules. , IV. Leaf to Canopy Scaling: Linking Transpiration and Photosynthesis with Their Microenvironment -- V. What Information Is Needed to Scale CO2 and Water Vapor Exchange from a Leaf to a Canopy? -- VI. Can Information on Leaf CO2 and Water Vapor Exchange Be Extended to the Canopy Scale? -- VII. Concluding Comments -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 6. Prospects for Bottom-Up Models -- I. What Are Bottom-Up Models? -- II. Problems -- III. Top-Down Models: An Alternative Approach -- IV. Bottom-Up Models and Scaling -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7. Scaling Ecophysiology from the Plant to the Ecosystem: A Conceptual Framework -- I. Introduction -- II. Role of Modeling -- III. Scaling Issues and Hierarchy Theory -- IV. Examples of Model Aggregation -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 8. Generalization of a Forest Ecosystem Process Model for Other Biomes, BIOME-BGC, and an Application for Global-Scale Models -- I. Introduction -- II. Lessons Learned in the Evolution of Forest-BGC and RESSys -- III. BIOME-BGC Development -- IV. Global Scale Application Using BIOME-BGC -- V. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 9. How Ecophysiologists Can Help Scale from Leaves to Landscapes -- I. Role of Ecophysiologists -- II. Promising Research Areas -- III. Landscape Ecology -- IV. Challenges for the Future -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Part III: Global Constraints and Regional Processes -- Chapter 10. Global Dynamics and Ecosystem Processes: Scaling Up or Scaling Down? -- I. Introduction -- II. From Physiology to Ecosystem -- III. From Ecosystem to Global Scale -- IV. Global Measurements to Ecosystem Mechanisms -- V. Conclusions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 11. Observational Strategy for Assessing the Role of Terrestrial Ecosystems in the Globa' Carbon Cycle: Scaling Down to Regional Levels -- I. Introduction. , II. Atmospheric Concentration Gradients and Transport Modeling -- III. General Requirements for Measurements -- IV. Methods for Monitoring the Carbon Cycle on the Continents -- V. Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 12. Forests in the Global Carbon Balance: From Stand to Region -- I. Introduction -- II. Carbon Balance Concept -- III. Methodology for Determining Enhanced Sources and Sinks -- IV. Current Enhanced Sources -- V. Current Enhanced Sinks -- VI. Historical Trend of the Global Terrestrial Sink -- VII. Carbon Dioxide Fertilization -- VIII. Moving Forward -- IX. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 13. Prospects for Scaling -- I. Introduction -- II. Approaches and Guidelines -- References -- Part IV: Functional Units in Ecology -- Chapter 14. Scaling in Biological Systems: Population and Community Perspectives -- I. Introduction -- II. Individual Plants as Members of Populations, Communities, and Ecosystems -- III. Global Change, Resource Augmentation, and the Response of Individuals and Populations: Are There General Patterns? -- IV. Models as Tools for Scaling: Single Individual and Single Species Models without Competition -- V. Models with Competition and among Neighbors: A Step closer to Natural Ecosystems -- VI. Factors That Can Compromise the Simplicity of Models -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 15. Scaling at the Population Level: Effects of Species Composition and Population Structure -- I. Introduction -- II. When to Consider the Population Level in the Context of Scaling -- III. Patchiness and the Gap Paradigm -- IV. Why Simplify? -- V. How to Simplify -- VI. Spatial and Temporal Dependencies -- VII. Future Directions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 16. Functional Role of Growth Forms in Ecosystem and Global Processes -- I. Introduction. , II. Physiological Basis of Adaptive Strategies -- III. Ecological Controls over Adaptive Strategies -- IV. Ecosystem Consequences of Growth Forms -- V. Growth Form-Ecosystem Feedbacks -- VI. Remote Sensing of Growth Forms and Ecosystem Function -- VII. Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 17. Grouping Plants by Their Form-Function Characteristics as an Avenue for Simplification in Scaling between Leaves and Landscapes -- I. Introduction -- II. Form-Function Relationship in Plants -- III. Grouping Rationale -- IV. Grouping Criteria -- V. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Part V: Integrating Technologies for Scaling -- Chapter 18. Applications of Stable Isotopes to Scaling Biospheric Photosynthetic Activities -- I. Introduction -- II. Sources: The Importance of Isotopic Composition of Water in the Metabolic Compartments of Leaves -- III. Gradients: The Interpretation of Gradients in Isotopic Composition and Their Value as Integrators of Photosynthetic Fluxes -- IV. Partitioning: Evaluating Photosynthetic Pathways within Ecosystems, Carbon Allocation below Ground, and Integration with Nitrogen Fixation -- V. Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 19. Remote Sensing of Ecological Processes: A Strategy for Developing and Testing Ecological Models Using Spectral Mixture Analysis -- I. Introduction -- II. Relevant Ecological Measurements -- III. Current Approaches to Remote Sensing -- IV. Conclusions -- V. Summary -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 20. New Technologies for Physiological Ecology -- I. Introduction -- II. Discussion -- References -- Index -- Physiological Ecology.

Note: Front Cover -- Growth Control in Woody Plants -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1. Introduction -- Genetic Control of Growth -- Environmental Regulation of Growth -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 2. Seed Germination and Seedling Growth -- Introduction -- Seed Structure -- Seed Composition -- Patterns of Seed Germination -- Environmental Control of Seed Germination -- Physiology of Seed Germination -- Seed Longevity and Aging -- Seed Dormancy -- Physiology of Young Seedlings -- Production of Seedlings in Nurseries -- Growth Potential of Outplanted Seedlings -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 3. Physiological Regulation of Vegetative Growth -- Introduction -- Carbohydrate Relations -- Growth Respiration -- Mineral Relations -- Water Deficits -- Water Excess -- Hormone Relations -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 4. Physiological Regulation of Reproductive Growth -- Introduction -- Carbohydrate Relations -- Mineral Relations -- Water Deficits -- Flooding -- Hormone Relations -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 5. Environmental Regulation of Vegetative Growth -- Introduction -- Light -- Flooding -- Temperature -- Soil Fertility -- Salinity -- Soil Compaction -- Pollution -- Wind -- Fire -- Insects and Diseases -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 6. Environmental Regulation of Reproductive Growth -- Introduction -- Light Intensity -- Water Supply -- Temperature -- Soil Fertility -- Salinity -- Pollution -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 7. Cultural Practices and Vegetative Growth -- Introduction -- Site Preparation -- Drainage -- Herbicides -- Irrigation -- Correction of Mineral Deficiencies -- Thinning of Forest Stands -- Pruning -- Application of Growth Regulators -- Integrated Pest Management -- Summary -- General References. , Chapter 8. Cultural Practices and Reproductive Growth -- Introduction -- Arrangement and Spacing of Trees -- Grafting -- Fertilizers -- Irrigation -- Thinning of Forest Stands -- Pruning -- Scoring or Girdling (Ringing) of Branches and Stems -- Application of Plant Growth Regulators -- Storage of Harvested Fruits -- Prevention of Freezing and Chilling Injury -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 9. Biotechnology -- Introduction: The Scope and Potential of Biotechnology -- Basic Aspects of Molecular Biology -- Insertion of Foreign Genes: Transformation -- Molecular Analysis of Genetic Structure and Variation -- Propagation -- Accomplishments and Prospects -- Summary -- General References -- Scientific and Common Names of Plants -- Bibliography -- Index -- A Series of Monographs, Texts, and Treatises.

Note: Front Cover -- Resource Physiology of Conifers: Acquisition, Allocation, and Utilization -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Part I: Resource Acquisition -- Chapter 1. Photosynthetic Light Capture and Processing from Cell to Canopy -- I. Introduction -- II. Factors Influencing the Photosynthetic Response of Needles to Light -- III. Interactions between Structure and Photosynthetic Light Response at Different Levels -- References -- Chapter 2. Water and Nutrient Acquisition by Roots and Canopies -- I. Introduction -- II. Methodology -- III. Fundamentals -- IV. Uptake and Use of Water and Nutrients -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 3. Efficiency of Nutrient Acquisition by Fine Roots and Mycorrhizae -- I. Strategies of Tree Root Systems -- II. A Model of Fine Root Efficiency -- III. Model Limitations -- IV. Root Longevity -- V. Root Diameter -- VI. Efficiency of Mycorrhizal Hyphae -- VII. Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 4. External and Internal Factors Regulating Photosynthesis -- I. Introduction -- II. Framework -- III. Direct Effects -- IV. Indirect Effects -- V. Consequences for Growth and Survival -- VI. Integration of Photosynthetic Rate over Time -- VII. Scaling Photosynthetic C02 Exchange from Foliage to Canopies and Regions -- References -- Part II: Resource Allocation and Utilization -- Chapter 5. Resource Use Efficiency -- I. Introduction -- II. Issues of Scaling -- III. Resource Use Efficiencies at Various Spatial Scales -- IV. Discussion -- Notation of Symbols -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 6. Source-Sink-Storage Relationships of Conifers -- I. Introduction -- II. Source-Sink Relationships for Five Conifer Species -- III. Source-Sink-Storage Interactions -- IV. Conifer Development and Source-Sink Relationships -- V. Environmental Influences on Sources and Sinks. , VI. General Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 7. Carbon Allocation and Accumulation in Conifers -- I. Introduction -- II. Distribution of Conifer Forests -- III. Controls on Carbon Assimilation -- IV. Carbon Allocation Patterns in Conifers -- V. Controls on Carbon Allocation -- VI. Changes in Carbon Dynamics during Stand Development -- VII. Multiple Resource Limitations -- VIII. Future Research -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 8. Respiration from the Organ Level to the Stand -- I. Introduction -- II. Foliar Respiration -- IV. Fine Root Respiration -- V. Proxy Methods for Estimating Respiration without Tissue-Specific Measurements -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 9. Water Transport Dynamics in Trees and Stands -- I. Water Absorption -- II. Internal Transport and Storage -- III. Water Stress Problems Unique to Conifers -- IV. Transpiration: Trees to Stands -- V. Physiological Response of Conifers to Water Deficits -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Index -- Physiological Ecology.

Note: Front Cover -- Applications of Physiological Ecology to Forest Management -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1. Introduction: Forests in the Modern World -- I. Forest Management: Levels, Decisions, and Influences -- II. Overview -- Chapter 2. Forest Biomes of the World -- I. Management -- II. Plantation Forestry -- III. Species Adaptations and Climatic Conditions -- IV. Forest Biomes of the World -- V. Future Distribution and Extent of Forest Biomes -- VI. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 3. Canopy Architecture and Microclimate -- I. Canopy Architecture -- II. Energy Balance and Interception of Visible (Photosynthetically Active) Radiation -- III. Heat and Mass Transport -- IV. Effects of Topography on Microclimate -- V. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 4. Forest Hydrology and Tree-Water Relations -- I. Hydrologic Balance -- II. Catchment Hydrology -- III. Tree-Water Relations and Their Effects on Growth -- IV. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 5. Carbon Balance of Forests -- I. Leaf Photosynthesis -- II. Canopy Photosynthesis -- III. Autotrophic Respiration -- IV. Net Primary Production -- V. Growth Efficiency -- VI. Net Ecosystem Production -- VII. Forests in the Global Carbon Budget -- VIII. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 6. Soil Organic Matter and Decomposition -- I. Soil Carbon Content and Accumulation -- II. Sources of Soil Organic Matter -- III. Litter Decomposition -- IV. Carbon Losses from Forest Ecosystems -- V. Influence of Forest Management on Soil Carbon Dynamics -- VI. Role of Forest Soils in the Global Carbon Budget -- VII. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 7. Nutrient Distribution and Cycling -- I. The Essential Plant Nutrients and Ion-Exchange Capacity of Soils -- II. Nutrient Distribution -- III. Nutrient Cycling. , IV. Impacts of Natural and Anthropogenic "Disturbances" on Nutrient Cycles -- V. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 8. Changes in Ecosystem Structure and Function during Stand Development -- I. General Succession Theory -- II. Changes in Species Composition -- III. Stand Functional Characteristics -- IV. Forest and Ecosystem Productivity -- V. Nutrient Cycling -- VI. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 9. Ecosystem Process Models -- I. Forestry Models -- II. Current Process-Based Models -- III. Practical Applications -- IV. Concluding Remarks -- Recommended Reading -- Chapter 10. Applications of Modern Technology and Ecophysiology to Forest Management -- I. Geographical Information Systems -- II. Remote Sensing -- III. The Use of GIS, Remote Sensing, and Models as Management Tools -- IV. Concluding Remarks -- V. Peroration -- Recommended Reading -- Symbols and Definitions -- References -- Subject Index -- Color Plate Section.

Note: Front Cover -- Terrestrial Global Productivity -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Contributors -- Preface -- Chapter 1. Terrestrial Primary Productivity: Definitions and Milestones -- Part I: Component Processes -- Chapter 2. Canopy Photosynthesis: History, Measurements, and Models -- I. Introduction -- II. History -- III. Current Theoretical Concepts -- IV. Processes: Response of Canopy Photosynthesis to External Forcings -- V. Canopy Photosynthesis in the Future -- VI. Research Directions -- References -- Chapter 3. Terrestrial Higher Plant Respiration and Net Primary Production -- I. Plant Respiration in Relation to Terrestrial Ecosystem Net Primary Production -- II. Regulation of Respiration Rate -- III. The Fundamental (Semi) Mechanistic Model of Plant Respiration -- IV. Respiration following and during Photosynthesis -- V. Respiration in Leaves, Stems, and Roots -- VI. Respiration in Comparison to Photosynthesis at the Ecosystem Scale -- VII. Optimum Leaf Area Index: Does It Exist? -- VIII. Big Trees and Declining Forest Net Primary Production -- IX. Respiratory Responses to Environmental Change: The Future -- X. Summary -- References -- Chapter 4. Phenology, Growth, and Allocation in Global Terrestrial Productivity -- I. Introduction -- II. Phenology -- III. Growth and Allocation -- IV. Future Directions -- V. Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 5. From Plant Soil: Litter Production and Decomposition -- I. Introduction -- II. Litter Inputs: Quantity and Quality -- III. From Plant Organic Matter to Soil Organic Matter -- IV. Research Needs -- V. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 6. Herbivory and Trophic Interactions -- I. Introduction -- II. Herbivores and Trophic Relations in Global Evolutionary Context -- III. Herbivory and the Environment -- IV. Plant Architecture -- V. Tri-trophic Interactions. , VI. Trophic Interactions and Plant Community Composition -- VII. Grazing and Detritus Food Webs in a Global Biome Context -- VIII. Resolving a Dilemma: Remote Sensing, Herbivory, and Trophic Interactions -- IX. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 7. Water, Nitrogen, Rising Atmospheric CO2, and Terrestrial Productivity -- I. Introduction -- II. The Constraints -- III. Effects of Water Regime on Net Primary Production -- IV. Effects of CO2 on NPP and NEP -- V. Interactions between CO2 and Nutrients -- VI. Interactions between Water Regime and CO2 Concentrations -- VII. Interactions between CO2, Water, and Nitrogen -- References -- Chapter 8. How Does Biodiversity Control Primary Productivity? -- I. Introduction -- II. Productivity and Species Diversity at Different Spatial Scales -- III. Impact of Plant Species and Functional Group Diversity on Intensity of Ecosystem Fluxes -- IV. Mechanisms Relating Plant Diversity and Flux Intensity -- V. Impact of Plant Diversity on the Stability of Ecosystem Fluxes -- VI. Conclusions and Perspectives -- References -- Part II: Ecosystem Productive Performance -- Chapter 9. Productivity of Arctic Ecosystems -- I. Introduction -- II. Environment -- III. Primary Production and Net Ecosystem Production -- IV. Environmental Controls, Direct and Indirect -- V. Effects of Species Composition -- VI. Short- versus Long-Term Controls -- VII. Priorities for New Research -- References -- Chapter 10. Productivity of Boreal Forests -- I. Introduction -- II. Nature and Extent of Boreal Forests -- III. Recent Research Programs -- IV. Biophysical Properties -- V. Evaporation, Transpiration, and Climate -- VI. Biomass and Productivity -- VII. Production Processes -- VIII. Stand Annual Carbon Balance -- IX. Radiation Use Efficiency -- X. Regional Production and Sensitivity to Global Change -- XI. Summary -- References. , Chapter 11. Productivity of Evergreen and Deciduous Temperate Forests -- I. Nature and Extent of Temperate Forests -- II. Productivity Values -- III. Control on ANPP Due to Water, Soils, Disturbance, and Vegetation Type -- IV. Component and Total Carbon Flux and Scaling Relations -- V. Human Impacts on Production -- VI. Summary -- References -- Chapter 12. Productivity of Temperate Grasslands -- I. Introduction -- II. Productivity Patterns and Controls -- III. Secondary Productivity Patterns and Control -- IV. Grassland Primary Production, Carbon Balance, and Global Change -- References -- Chapter 13. Productivity of Agro-ecosystems -- I. Introduction -- II. Potential and Actual Net Primary Production -- III. Primary Productivity of Agriculture -- IV. Time Trends in Productivity, Nitrogen Uptake, and Fertilizer Use -- V. Who Consumes the Production? -- VI. Discussion -- VII. Summary -- References -- Chapter 14. Hierarchy and Productivity of Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems -- I. Nature and Extent of Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems -- II. Productivity in Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems -- III. Scaling Up Leaf Production -- IV. Environmental Limitations on NPP -- V. The Threats of Global Change -- VI. Summary -- References -- Chapter 15. Productivity of Deserts -- I. Nature and Extent of Deserts -- II. Standing Biomass and Aboveground Net Primary Productivity Rates -- III. Seasonality Components of Net Primary Production -- IV. Human Impacts on Primary Productivity in Desert Regions -- V. Anticipated Impacts of Global Change on Deserts -- VI. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 16. Productivity of Tropical Savannas and Grasslands -- I. Introduction -- II. Definition -- III. Extent -- VI. Plant Composition: Structural and Functional Variability -- V. Estimates of Biomass and Productivity -- VI. Biophysical Properties, Fluxes, and Efficiencies. , VII. Environmental Determinants -- VIII. Human Influence -- IX. Climate Change -- X. Summary -- References -- Chapter 17. Productivity of Tropical Rain Forests -- I. The Nature and Extent of Tropical Rain Forests -- II. Production Values -- III. Components of Production -- IV. Estimate of Global Productivity -- V. Human and Environmental Impacts -- VI. Research Needs -- References -- Part IIl: Global Productivity -- Chapter 18. Determining Present Patterns of Global Productivity -- I. Introduction -- II. The Nature of Available NPP Observations -- III. Assessing Productivity at the Continental to Global Scale -- IV. Outlook: Development of an Improved Database -- References -- Chapter 19. Integrating Global Models of Terrestrial Primary Productivity -- I. Introduction -- II. Different Nature and Purposes of Global Models -- III. Modeling Biospheric Processes -- IV. Indirect Constraints on NPP from Remote-Sensed and Atmospheric Observations -- V. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Chapter 20. Reconstructing and Modeling Past Changes in Terrestrial Primary Productivity -- I. Introduction -- II. Reconstruction of Vegetation Composition and NPP from Paleodata -- III. Global Simulation of Vegetation and NPP -- IV. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 21. Global Terrestrial Productivity and Carbon Balance -- I. Introduction -- II. Carbon Fluxes, 1850 to 1990 -- III. Carbon Fluxes, 1980 to 1995 -- IV. Future Changes in Carbon Storage and NPP Likely as a Result of Human Activity -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 22. Predicting the Future Productivity and Distribution of Global Terrestrial Vegetation -- I. Introduction -- II. Methods -- III. Model Projections -- IV. Model Projections for the 1860s to the 2090s -- V. Summary -- References -- Chapter 23. Estimations of Global Terrestrial Productivity: Converging toward a Single Number?. , I. Introduction -- II. Synthesis of Biome Data -- III. Comparison of NPP and Phytomass Estimated by Different Methods -- IV. Global Change-Induced Variations in NPP and NEP -- V. Conclusions -- References -- Index -- Previous Volumes in Series.

Note: Front Cover -- The Physiological Ecology of Woody Plants -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1. How Woody Plants Grow -- Introduction -- Heredity and Environment -- Growth Characteristics -- Special Interests of Arborists, Foresters,and Horticulturists -- Complexity of Environmental Control of Growth -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 2. Physiological and Environmental Requirements for Tree Growth -- Introduction -- Photosynthesis -- Uses of the Products of Photosynthesis -- Assimilation -- Respiration -- Storage of Food -- Translocation -- Internal Competition and the Partitioning of Food -- Hormones and the Regulation of Growth -- Environmental Limitations on Growth -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 3. Establishment and Growth of Tree Stands -- Introduction -- Stand Regeneration -- Competition -- Mortality -- Succession -- Biomass Accumulation and Partitioning -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 4. Radiation -- Introduction -- The Radiation Environment and Energy Balance of Leaves -- Photosynthesis -- Biomass Productivity and Radiation Interception -- Light and Plant Development -- Photoperiodic Effects -- Ultraviolet Radiation and Plants -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 5. Temperature -- Introduction -- Growth -- Physiological Processes -- Effects of Low Temperatures -- Winter Desiccation Injury -- Effects of High Temperatures -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 6. Soil Properties and Mineral Nutrition -- Introduction -- Site Quality and Site Index -- Soil as a Medium for Root Growth and a Reservoir for Water and Minerals -- The Absorbing System -- Functions of Minerals -- Mineral Deficiencies -- Management Practices in Relation to Soil Fertility -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 7. Water Stress -- Introduction -- Plant Water Relations. , Some Effects of Water Stress -- Drought Tolerance -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 8. Soil Aeration,Compaction, and Flooding -- Introduction -- Soil Compaction -- Impermeable Layers -- Flooding -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 9. Air Pollution -- Introduction -- Responses of Woody Plants to Air Pollution -- Factors Affecting Responses to Pollution -- Interactions of Air Pollutants with Disease and Insects -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 10. Carbon Dioxide -- Introduction -- Effects of C02 Concentration on Growth -- Effects on Physiological Processes -- Partitioning of Photosynthate -- Interactions with Other Limiting Factors -- Effects on Plant Communities and Forests -- Miscellaneous Effects -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 11. Fire -- Introduction -- Effects of Fire on Vegetation and Site Quality -- Adaptations to Fire -- Prescribed Burning -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 12. Wind -- Introduction -- Injury -- Tree Form and Size -- Growth -- Physiological Processes -- Dispersal of Air Pollutants -- Dispersal of Spores of Pathogens -- Dispersal of Pollen -- Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits -- Windbreaks and Shelterbelts -- Summary -- General References -- Chapter 13. Cultural Practices -- Introduction -- Production of Planting Stock -- Site Preparation -- Fertilization -- Irrigation -- Thinning of Forest Stands -- Pruning -- Growth Retardants and Pesticides -- Integrated Pest Management -- Planting for High Yield -- Summary -- General References -- Bibliography -- Common Name Index -- Scientific Name Index -- Subject Index.