Note: Front Cover -- Thermodynamics of Clouds -- Copyright Page -- Introduction -- Contents -- Chapter I. Ideas of Capillarity -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Surface Tension -- 3. Mechanical Equilibrium Conditions for a Surface -- 4. Equilibrium of an Edge -- 5. Contact Angle of a Fluid/Fluid Interface with the Surface of a Solid -- 6. Mechanical Work Done by a Capillary System -- 7. Surface Tension of a Crystal Face -- Chapter II. Surface Model and Definitions of Adsorption, Surface Enthalpy, and Entropy -- 1. The Real System and the Simplified Model -- 2. Difficulties Inherent in the Use of the Surface Model -- Chapter III. Laws of Thermodynamics -- 1. Choice of Variables -- 2. First Law of Thermodynamics -- 3. Second Law of Thermodynamics -- Chapter IV. Fundamental Formulas in Terms of Intensive Variables -- 1. Aims of the Chapter -- 2. Variables on Which the Surface Functions of State Depend -- 3. Intensive Properties of the Surface -- 4. Transformation from Intensive to Extensive Variables -- 5. Specific Surface Functions of State -- 6. Fundamental Formulas Relating to the Surface Phase -- 7. Fundamental Formulas in Terms of Intensive Variables -- Chapter V. Equilibrium States -- 1. Affinities of Adsorption -- 2. Conditions for Adsorption Equilibrium -- 3. Equilibrium Displacement -- 4. Phase Rule -- 5. Extension of Duhem's Theorem to Systems Containing Surfaces -- Chapter VI. Adiabatic Transformations -- Chapter VII. Examination of Some Approximations or Hypotheses -- 1. Aims of the Chapter -- 2. Humid Air Can Be Treated as a Mixture of Two Perfect Gases: Dry Air and Water Vapor -- 3. The Surface Tension of a Droplet Can Be Considered Independent of the Radius of Curvature -- 4. Adsorptions Are Negligible in Comparison with the Masses Involved, and Adsorption of Atmospheric Components Has Negligible Effect on the Surface Tension. , 5. The Lateral Functions αγ', βγ', γλ' and αγ", βγ", γλ" Can Be Neglected -- 6. The Heat Capacities at Constant Pressure of Dry Air and Water Vapor, of Which the Atmosphere Is Composed, Are Constants -- 7. The Heat Capacities of Pure Liquid and Solid Water Vary Only Slightly with Temperature -- Chapter VIII. Study of a Droplet Suspended in the Atmosphere -- 1. Statement of the Problem -- 2. Influence of Curvature on the Saturation Pressure of a Droplet -- 3. Influence of Other Components on the Heat of Vaporization of Water from a Plane Surface -- 4. Influence of Curvature on the Heat of Vaporization of a Droplet -- 5. Influence of Curvature on the Equilibrium Temperature of a Droplet -- 6. Stability of Equilibrium of a Droplet -- 7. Reversible Adiabatic Transformations -- Chapter IX. Study of an Ice Crystal Suspended in the Atmosphere -- 1. Statement of the Problem -- 2. Influence of Radius on the Saturation Pressure Relative to an Ice Crystal -- 3. Influence of Radius on the Heat of Sublimation of an Ice Crystal -- 4. Influence of Radius on the Equilibrium Temperature of an Ice Crystal -- 5. Stability of Equilibrium of an Ice Crystal -- 6. Reversible Adiabatic Transformations -- Chapter X. Temperature of Coexistence of a Droplet of Solution and a Crystal of Ice in the Atmosphere -- 1. Statement of the Problem -- 2. Droplet of Solution and Crystal of Ice Suspended in the Atmosphere -- 3. Ice Crystal Contained within a Droplet of Solution Suspended in the Atmosphere -- Chapter XI. Germs of Condensation and Crystallization -- 1. Definition of the Germ -- 2. Calculation of Radius of Germ -- 3. Formation of Germs, or Nucleation -- 4. Free Energy of Formation of a Drop Phase -- 5. Free Energy of Formation of a Crystal Phase -- 6. Free Energy of Formation in the Case When There Is Only a Single Component in the Drop or Crystal. , 7. Choice of Shape Factor for Ice Crystals -- Chapter XII. Equilibrium Populations of Embryos. Calculation of Number of Germs as Limiting Case of Problem of Equilibrium -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Properties of Embryos Considered as Particles -- 3. Comparison between the System Containing Embryos Treated as Phases and the System of Particle Embryos -- 4. Equilibrium Populations of Embryos in a Liquid Mother Phase -- 5. Embryos and Germs of Ice in Pure Water -- 6. Embryos and Germs of Ice in Salt Water -- 7. Equilibrium Populations of Embryos in a Gaseous Mother Phase -- Chapter XIII. Nueleation Rate -- 1. Definition of Nueleation Rate -- 2. Ratio of the Forward Rate w to the Reverse Rate w per Unit Surface Area -- 3. Kinetics of Nucleation -- 4. Nucleation of Water or Ice in Humid Air -- 5. Review of the Basic Elements of the Theory of Viscosity -- 6. Nucleation in a Pure Liquid -- 7. Nucleation in a Liquid Mixture -- 8. Experimental Tests in a Liquid Mother Phase -- 9. Calculation of Mean Freezing Temperature of Water Droplets -- 10. Values Used in Calculating Nucleation Rate and Freezing Temperature -- 11. Determination of Ice/Water Surface Tension -- 12. Comparison of Values of Ice/Water Surface Tension Given by Various Authors -- List of Symbols -- Bibliography -- Author Index -- Subject Index.

Note: Front Cover -- An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Preface to First Edition -- Chapter 1. Introduction -- 1.1 The Atmospheric Continuum -- 1.2 Physical Dimensions and Units -- 1.3 Scale Analysis -- 1.4 The Fundamental Forces -- 1.5 Noninertial Reference Frames and"Apparent" Forces -- 1.6 Structure of the Static Atmosphere -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 2. The Basic Conservation Laws -- 2.1 Total Differentiation -- 2.2 The Vectorial Form of the Momentum Equation in Rotating Coordinates -- 2.3 The Component Equations in Spherical Coordinates -- 2.4 Scale Analysis of the Equations of Motion -- 2.5 The Continuity Equation -- 2.6 The Thermodynamic Energy Equation -- 2.7 Thermodynamics of the Dry Atmosphere -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 3. Elementary Applications of the Basic Equations -- 3.1 The Basic Equations in Isobaric Coordinates -- 3.2 Balanced Flow -- 3.3 Trajectories and Streamlines -- 3.4 Vertical Shear of the Geostrophic Wind: The Thermal Wind -- 3.5 Vertical Motion -- Problems -- Chapter 4. Circulation and Vorticity -- 4.2 Vorticity -- 4.3 Potential Vorticity -- 4.4 The Vorticity Equation -- 4.5 Scale Analysis of the Vorticity Equation -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 5. The Planetary Boundary Layer -- 5.1 The Mixing Length Theory -- 5.2 Planetary Boundary Layer Equations -- 5.3 Secondary Circulations and Spin-Down -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 6. The Dynamics of Synoptic Scale Motions in Middle Latitudes -- 6.1 The Observed Structure of Midlatitude Synoptic Systems -- 6.2 Development of the Quasi-Geostrophic System -- 6.3 Idealized Model of a Developing Baroclinic System -- Problems -- Suggested Reference -- Chapter 7. Atmospheric Oscillations: Linear Perturbation Theory -- 7.1 The Perturbation Method -- 7.2 Properties of Waves. , 7.3 Simple Wave Types -- 7.4 Internal Gravity (Buoyancy) Waves -- 7.5 Rossby Waves -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 8. Numerical Prediction -- 8.1 Historical Background -- 8.2 Filtering of Sound and Gravity Waves -- 8.3 Filtered Forecast Equations -- 8.4 One-Parameter Models -- 8.5 A Two-Parameter Model -- 8.6 Numerical Solution of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation -- 8.7 Primitive Equation Models -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 9. The Development and Motion of Midlatitude Synoptic Systems -- 9.1 Hydrodynamic Instability -- 9.2 Baroclinic Instability: Cyclogenesis -- 9.3 The Energetics of Baroclinic Waves -- 9.4 Fronts and Frontogenesis -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 10. The General Circulation -- 10.1 The Nature of the Problem -- 10.2 The Energy Cycle: A Quasi-Geostrophic Model -- 10.3 The Momentum Budget -- 10.4 The Dynamics of Zonally Symmetric Circulations -- 10.5 Laboratory Simulation of the General Circulation -- 10.6 Numerical Simulation of the General Circulation -- 10.7 Longitudinally Varying Features of the General Circulation -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 11. Stratospheric Dynamics -- 11.1 The Observed Mean Structure and Circulation of the Stratosphere -- 11.2 The Energetics of the Lower Stratosphere -- 11.3 Vertically Propagating Planetary Waves -- 11.4 Sudden Stratospheric Warmings -- 11.5 Waves in the Equatorial Stratosphere -- 11.6 The Quasi-Biennial Oscillation -- 11.7 The Ozone Layer -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 12. Tropical Motion Systems -- 12.1 Scale Analysis of Tropical Motions -- 12.2 Cumulus Convection -- 12.3 The Observed Structure of Large-Scale Motions in the Equatorial Zone -- 12.4 The Origin of Equatorial Disturbances -- 12.5 Tropical Cyclones -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Appendix A. Useful Constants and Parameters. , Appendix B. List of Symbols -- Appendix C. Vector Analysis -- Appendix D. The Equivalent Potential Temperature -- Appendix E. Standard Atmosphere Data -- Answers to Selected Problems -- Bibliography -- Index -- InternationaI Geophysics Series.

Note: Front Cover -- Physics of the Earth's Interior -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- List of Frequently Used Symbols -- Chapter 1. Fundamental Problems and Fundamental Data -- 1.1 Methods of Investigating the Earth's Interior, and the Accuracy of the Results -- 1.2 The Figure of the Earth and Related Constants -- 1.3 Gravity at Sea Level -- 1.4 Astronomical Data -- References -- Chapter 2. The Structure of the Earth -- 2.1 Historical Review -- 2.2 The Boundaries of the Major Units of the Earth -- 2.3 Causes for Discontinuities in the Earth -- References -- Chapter 3. The Earth's Crust -- 3.1 Definitions -- 3.2 Methods of Determining Velocities in Layers and Their Thickness -- 3.3 Velocities in Crustal Layers and Depths of Discontinuities Based on Observation of Elastic Waves -- 3.4 Effects of the Crust on Amplitudes of Reflected Waves PP -- 3.5 Conclusions from Channel Waves and Microseisms -- 3.6 Conclusions from Dispersion and Extinction of Surface Waves -- 3.7 Gravity Anomalies and the Structure of the Earth's Crust -- 3.8 Results Based on Several Methods -- 3.9 Causes for Discontinuities in the Crust -- References -- Chapter 4 . The Mantle of the Earth -- 4.1 Subdivisions of the Mantle -- 4.2 Region B from the Mohorovičić Discontinuity to about 200 km Depth. The "20°"-Discontinuity" -- 4.3 Region C between about 200 and 950 km Depth -- 4.4 The Mantle between a Depth of about 950 km and the Core Boundary -- References -- Chapter 5. The Core -- 5.1 General Discussion of Travel Times through the Core, and of the Resulting Wave Velocities -- 5.2 The Outer Core (Region E) -- 5.3 The Transition Zone in the Core (Region F) -- 5.4 The Inner Core (Region G) -- 5.5 State and Composition of the Core -- 5.6 The Earth's Magnetic Field and the Core -- References -- Chapter 6 . Temperature and Thermal Processes in the Earth. , 6.1 Temperature and Temperature Gradients at the Earth's Surface -- 6.2 Thermal Conductivity in the Earth -- 6.3 Heat Flow through the Farth's Surface -- 6.4 Heat Fmitted by Volcanoes and Heat Generated by Earthquake Waves -- 6.5 Generation of Heat in the Earth -- 6.6 The Melting Points of Materials in the Earth -- 6.7 Calculated Temperature Changes in the Earth during its History -- 6.8 Estimated Temperatures in the Earth -- 6.9 Possibility of Molten Portions in the Upper Mantle -- Roots of Volcanoes -- References -- Chapter 7 . Density, Pressure, Gravity, and Flattening in the Earth -- 7.1 The Mean Density of the Earth -- 7.2 Equations Used in the Determination of the Density in the Earth as a Function of Depth -- 7.3 Assumed Continuous Density-Depth Curves -- 7.4 Density-Depth Curves Assuming Straight Lines Separated by Discontinuities -- 7.5 Density-Depth Curves on the Assumption that the Earth Consists of Homogeneous Shells -- 7.6 General Results Related t o the Problems of the Density in the Earth -- 7.7 Estimated Densities in the Earth -- 7.8 Gravity in the Earth -- 7.9 The Pressure in the Earth -- 7.10 Flattening of Near-Equipotential Ellipsoidic Surfaces in the Earth -- References -- Chapter 8. Elastic Constants, and Elastic Processes in the Earth -- 8.1 Elastic Constants and Love's Numbers -- 8.2 The Earth's Free Nutation. Latitude Variations -- 8.3 Tides of the Solid Earth -- 8.4 Free Vibrations of the Earth -- 8.5 Numerical Values of Love's Numbers -- 8.6 The Rigidity in the Earth -- 8.7 The Bulk Modulus in the Earth -- 8.8 Poisson's Ratio in the Earth -- 8.9 Young's Modulus and Lame's Constant λ in the Earth -- References -- Chapter 9. Nonelastic Processes in the Earth -- 9.1 Theoretical Treatment of Nonelastic Processes in the Earth -- 9.2 Attenuation of Elastic Waves in the Earth. , 9.3 The Strength Resisting Flow Processes (Yield Point) -- 9.4 "Viscosity" of the Earth's Outer Layers. Postglacial Uplift -- 9.5 Flow in the Deep Portions of the Earth -- 9.6 Strain-Rebound Characteristics of Earthquake Series and Aftershocks -- 9.7 Convection Currents in the Earth -- 9.8 Movements of Large Crustal Blocks Relative to Each Other -- 9.9 Secular Movements of the Poles -- References -- Author Index -- Subject Index.

Note: Front Cover -- An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics -- Copyright Page -- Preface -- Table of Contents -- CHAPTER I. GRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS -- 1.1 Fundamental Concepts -- 1.2 Law of Universal Gravitation -- 1.3 Newton's Laws of Motion -- 1.4 The Earth's Gravitational Field -- 1.5 The Force of Cravity -- 1.6 Geopotential -- 1.7 Satellite Orbits -- 1.8 Hydrostatic Equation -- 1.9 Distribution of Sea Level Pressure -- 1.10 Atmospheric Tides -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- CHAPTER II. PROPERTIES OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES -- 2.1 Molecular Behavior of Gases -- 2.2 Composition of Air -- 2.3 Elementary Kinetic Theory -- 2.4 Equation of State of an Ideal Gas -- 2.5 The Velocity Distribution of Molecules -- 2.7 Conservation of Energy -- 2.8 Conservation of Mass -- 2.9 First Law of Thermodynamics -- 2.10 Equipartition of Energy -- 2.11 Specific Heat -- 2.12 Entropy -- 2.13 Isentropic Processes and Potential Temperature -- 2.14 Static Stability -- 2.15 Thermodynamic Probability and Entropy -- 2.16 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Transfer Processes -- 2.17 Real Gases and Changes of Phase -- 2.18 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation -- 2.19 The Moist Atmosphere -- 2.20 Saturation Adiabatic Processes -- 2.21 Distribution of Temperature and Water Vapor -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- CHAPTER III. PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR OF CLOUD PARTICLES -- Part I: Growth -- 3.1 Intermolecular Forces and Surface Tension -- 3.2 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over a Curved Surface -- 3.3 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over Solutions -- 3.4 Distribution and Properties of Aerosols -- 3.5 Growth of Droplets by Condensation -- 3.6 Growth of Droplets by Accretion -- 3.7 Supercooling of Droplets -- 3.8 Ice Nuclei -- 3.9 Vapor Pressure of Ice and Water Particles -- 3.10 Growth of Ice Particles -- 3.11 Structure of Ice Crystals -- 3.12 Precipitation. , 3.13 Artificial Cloud Modification -- Part II: Electrical Charge Generation and Its Effects -- 3.14 Elementary Principles of Electricity -- 3.15 Charge Separation in Clouds -- 3.16 Origin and Distribution of Ions -- 3.17 Conductivity -- 3.18 The Lightning Discharge -- 3.19 The Mean Electric Field -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- CHAPTER IV. SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION -- Part I: Principles of Radiative Transfer -- 4.1 Definitions and Concepts -- 4.2 Absorption and Emission of Radiation -- 4.3 Theory of Black-Body Radiation -- 4.4 Characteristics of Black-Body Radiation -- 4.5 The Line Spectrum -- Part II: Radiation outside the Atmosphere -- 4.6 The Sun -- 4.7 Determination of the Solar Constant -- 4.8 Distribution of Solar Energy Intercepted by the Earth -- 4.9 Short- and Long-Wave Radiation -- 4.10 Radiation Measurements from Satellites -- Part III: Effects of Absorption and Emission -- 4.11 Absorption -- 4.12 The "Atmosphere" Effect -- 4.13 Transfer of Radiation between Two Parallel Surfaces -- 4.14 Transfer of Long-Wave Radiation in a Plane Stratified Atmosphere -- 4.15 Experimental Determination of Flux Emissivity -- 4.16 Divergence of Net Radiation -- 4.17 Direct Measurement of Flux Divergence -- Part IV: Photochemical Processes -- 4.18 Dissociation of Oxygen and Its Consequences -- 4.19 Photoionization -- 4.20 Airglow -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- CHAPTER V. TRANSFER PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS -- 5.1 Energy Transfer Near the Earth's Surface -- 5.2 Heat Conduction into the Earth -- 5.3 Turbulent Transfer -- 5.4 Turbulent Transfer in the Adiabatic Atmosphere -- 5.5 Turbulent Transfer in the Diabatic Atmosphere -- 5.6 Vertical Fluxes of Heat and Water Vapor -- 5.7 Vertical Aerosol Distribution -- 5.8 Nocturnal Cooling -- 5.9 Fog Formation -- 5.10 Air Modification. , 5.11 Global Summary of Energy Transfer -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- CHAPTER VI. GEOMAGNETIC PHENOMENA -- 6.1 Magnetic Induction -- 6.2 Maxwell's Equations -- 6.3 Field of a Magnetic Dipole -- 6.4 Behavior of Plasma in Electromagnetic Fields -- 6.5 The Ceomagnetic Field -- 6.6 Dynamo Theory of Ceomagnetism -- 6.7 Ion Distribution -- 6.8 The Ionospheric Current -- 6.9 Particle Motion in the Magnetosphere -- 6.10 The Aurora -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- CHAPTER VII. ATMOSPHERIC SIGNAL PHENOMENA -- Part I: General Properties of Waves -- 7.1 Nature of Waves -- 7.2 Phase Speed -- 7.3 Electromagnetic Waves -- 7.4 Dispersion and Group Velocity -- Part II: Scattering of Radiation -- 7.5 The Physical Concept -- 7.6 Complex Index of Refraction -- 7.7 Radiation Emitted by an Oscillating Dipole -- 7.8 Small Particles -- 7.9 Diffraction -- 7.10 Refraction -- Part III: Atmospheric Probing -- 7.11 Visual Range -- 7.12 Determination of Absorbing Constituents -- 7.13 Optical Measurement of Lapse Rate -- 7.14 Radar Investigation -- 7.15 Radio Investigation of the Ionosphere -- 7.16 Acoustic Refraction -- 7.17 The Sonic Anemometer-Thermometer -- Part IV: Natural Signal Phenomena -- 7.18 Refraction of Light by Air -- 7.19 Refraction by Ice Crystals -- 7.20 Refraction by Water Drops -- 7.21 Naturally Occurring Atmospheric Radiowaves -- 7.22 Refraction of Sound Waves -- Part V: Effects of Nuclear Explosions -- 7.23 Electromagnetic Radiation -- 7.24 The Shock Wave in Air -- List of Symbols -- Problems -- General References -- APPENDIX I: MATHEMATICAL TOPICS -- A. Partial Differentiation -- B. Elementary Vector Operations -- C. Taylor Series -- D. The Total Differential -- E. The Exact Differential -- F. Gauss' and Stokes' Theorems -- G. The Potential Function -- H. Solid Angle -- APPENDIX II: PHYSICAL TOPICS. , A. Units and Dimensions -- B. Significant Figures -- C. Electromagnetic Conversion Table -- D. Table of Physical Constants -- E. International Reference Atmosphere -- Bibliography -- Index.

Note: Front Cover -- Physics of the Aurora and Airglow -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 1. Radiation in Spectral Lines -- 1.1. Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium -- 1.2. The Classical Theory of Spectral Lines -- 1.3. Quantum Concepts of Spectral Lines -- 1.4. Molecular Bands -- 1.5. Excitation and Ionization Processes -- Chapter 2. Scattering of Radiation in Finite Atmospheres -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Equation of Radiative Transfer -- 2.3. Applications of the Transfer Equation to Photometry -- 2.4. The X - and Y-Functions in Problems of Radiative Transfe -- 2.5. Correction of Photometric Observations of the Airglow for Tropospheric Scattering -- Chapter 3. Magnetic Fields, Charged Particles, and the Upper Atmosphere -- 3.1. The Geomagnetic Field -- 3.2. Motions of Charged Particles in Electric and Magnetic Fields -- 3.3. Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in an Ionized Atmosphere -- 3.4. The Ionosphere -- 3.5. Model Atmospheres -- Chapter 4. Occurrence of Aurorae in Space and Time -- 4.1. Geographic Distribution and Periodic Variations -- 4.2. Characteristics of Auroral Displays -- 4.3. Aurorae and Related Phenomena -- Chapter 5. Auroral Spectroscopy and Photometry -- 5.1. Spectral Identifications -- 5.2. Spectral Photometry of Aurora -- Chapter 6. The Radio-Aurora -- 6.1. Observed Characteristics -- 6.2. Theory of Auroral Reflections -- Chapter 7. Physical Processes in the Auroral Atmosphere -- 7.1. Proton Bombardment -- 7.2. Electron Bombardment -- 7.3. Atmospheric Electrons -- 7.4. Theory of the Auroral Spectrum -- Chapter 8. Auroral Particles in Space -- 8.1. Interplanetary Space -- 8.2. Auroral Particles in the Geomagnetic Field -- Chapter 9. The Airglow Spectrum -- 9.1. Nightglow -- 9.2. Twilight and Day Airglow -- Chapter 10. Analysis of Twilight Observations for Emission Heights. , 10.1. Apparent Heights zs: The Shadow of the Solid Earth -- 10.2. Height Measurements with Atmospheric Screening -- 10.3. Height and Vertical Distribution of Observed Emissions -- Chapter 11. Theory of the Twilight and Day Airglow -- 11.1. Resonance Scattering and Fluorescence for an Optically Thin Layer -- 11.2. Excitation of N2+ First Negative Bands -- 11.3. Photon Scattering by Atmospheric Sodium -- 11.4. Photochemistry and Ionization of Atmospheric Sodium -- 11.5. Theory of the Oxygen Red Lines -- 11.6. Excitation of Other Emissions -- Chapter 12. Spectral Photometry of the Nightglow -- 12.1. Methods of Height Determinations -- 12.2. Spectroscopic Temperatures -- 12.3. Intensities, Polarization, and Geographic and Time Variations -- Chapter 13. Excitation of the Nightglow -- 13.1. Introduction: Mechanisms of Nightglow Excitation -- 13.2. Excitation by Recombination in the Ionosphere -- 13.3. Excitation by Particle Collisions -- 13.4. Photochemical Reactions in an Oxygen-Nitrogen Atmosphere -- 13.5. Excitation of Emissions from Minor Constituents -- Appendixes -- APPENDIX I: A Table of Physical Constants -- APPENDIX II: The Rayleigh: A Photometric Unit for the Aurora and Airglow -- APPENDIX III: A Short List of Airglow-Aurora Observing Stations -- APPENDIX IV: Temperature, Density, and Composition of the Upper Atmosphere -- APPENDIX V: The Ionosphere -- APPENDIX VI: Forbidden Atomic Oxygen and Nitrogen Lines -- APPENDIX VII: Glossary of Symbols -- APPENDIX VIII: A List of Books and Review Articles on the Aurora and Airglow -- Bibliography -- Author Index -- Subject Index.

Note: Front Cover -- The Continental Crust: A Geophysical Approach -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 1 Introduction: Crust, Mantle, Lithosphere, and Asthenosphere -- 1.0 Introduction -- 1.1 Definitions of Crust -- 1.2 Oceanic and Continental Crust -- 1.3 Definitions of Upper Mantle -- 1.4 Definition of Lithosphere and Asthenosphere -- Chapter 2 The Crust as the Product of a Planetary Differentiation Process -- 2.0 Introduction -- 2.1 The Lunar Crust -- 2.2 The Crust on Mercury, Mars, and Venus -- 2.3 The Center of Mass-Center of Figure Offset and Its Relation to Crustal Thickness -- 2.4 The Bipolarity of Surfaces and the Hypsographic Curves of Terrestrial Planets -- 2.5 A General Planetary Outlook -- Chapter 3 Collecting Physical Properties of the Earth's Crust -- 3.0 Introduction -- 3.1 Isostatic Compensation and Density Calculations from Gravity Measurements -- 3.2 Seismological Methods -- 3.3 Seismicity -- 3.4 Controlled-Source Seismology (Explosion Seismology) -- 3.5 The Electric Conductivity of the Crust -- 3.6 Stress Measurements and the State of Stress in the Continental Crust -- 3.7 Crustal Geomagnetism -- 3.8 Crustal Geothermics -- Chapter 4 Contributions from Laboratory Experiments -- 4.0 Introduction -- 4.1 Seismic P- and S-Wave Experiments -- 4.2 Attenuation Experiments -- 4.3 Fracture and Friction Experiments -- 4.4 Creep Experiments -- 4.5 Special Implications of Creep Data for the Rheology of the Continental Crust -- 4.6 Absolute Age Dating and Its Implications -- Chapter 5 The Composition of the Continental Crust -- 5.0 Introduction -- 5.1 Rock-Forming Minerals and Their Elements -- 5.2 Igneous Rocks -- 5.3 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks -- 5.4 Sedimentation and Sedimentary Rocks -- Chapter 6 Crustal Structure in Various Geologic Provinces -- 6.0 Introduction. , 6.1 Precambrian Shield Areas and Platforms -- 6.2 Paleozoic and Mesozoic Areas -- 6.3 Cenozoic Mountain Belts -- 6.4 Continental Grabens, Rifts, and Margins -- 6.5 Active Margins -- 6.6 Specific Crustal Structures -- Chapter 7 The Evolution of the Continental Crust -- 7.0 Introduction -- 7.1 Physical and Some Petrological Boundary Conditions -- 7.2 Geological Observations -- 7.3 The Mechanism of Crustal Growth -- References -- Index.

Note: Front Cover -- The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1 Introductory and Background Material -- 1.1 Scope and Goals of the Text -- 1.2 Structure of the Neutral Atmosphere and the Ionosphere -- 1.3 The Earth's Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere -- References -- Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Ionospheric Plasma Dynamics -- 2.1 The Basic Fluid Equations -- 2.2 Steady-State Ionospheric Plasma Motions Due to Applied Forces -- 2.3 Generation of Electric Fields -- 2.4 Electric Field Mapping -- 2.5 Elements of Magnetospheric Physics -- 2.6 Coordinate Systems -- References -- Chapter 3 Electrodynamics of the Equatorial Zone -- 3.1 Motions of the Equatorial F Region: The Data Base -- 3.2 The Equatorial F-Region Dynamo -- 3.3. E-Region Dynamo Theory and the Daytime Equatorial Electrojet -- 3.4 Further Complexities of Equatorial Electrodynamics -- 3.5 Feedback between the Electrodynamics and the Thermospheric Winds -- References -- Chapter 4 Equatorial Plasma Instabilities -- 4.1 F-Region Plasma Instabilities: Observations -- 4.2 Development and Initiation of Equatorial Spread F -- 4.3 Nonlinear Theories of ESF -- 4.4 Short-Wavelength Waves in Equatorial Spread F -- 4.5 ESF Summary -- 4.6 E-Region Plasma Instabilities: The Observational Data Base -- 4.7 Linear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities -- 4.8 Nonlinear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities -- 4.9 Future Directions -- References -- Chapter 5 The Mid-Latitude Ionosphere -- 5.1 Competing Influences on the Tropical and Mid-Latitude Ionospheres -- 5.2 Electrodynamics of the Tropical and Mid-Latitude Zone -- 5.3 Irregularities in the Mid-Latitude Ionosphere -- 5.4 Mid-Latitude Plasma Instabilities -- References -- Chapter 6 High-Latitude Electrodynamics -- 6.1 Electrical Coupling between the Ionosphere, Magnetosphere, and Solar Wind. , 6.2 Observations of Ionospheric Convection -- 6.3 Simple Models of Convection in the Magnetosphere -- 6.4 Empirical and Analytic Representations of High-Latitude Convection -- 6.5 Observations of Field-Aligned Currents -- 6.6 Horizontal Currents at High Latitudes -- References -- Chapter 7 Effects of Plasma Flow at High Latitudes -- 7.1 Ionospheric Effects of Parallel Plasma Dynamics -- 7.2 Ionospheric Effects of Perpendicular Plasma Dynamics -- 7.3 Electrodynamic Forcing of the Neutral Atmosphere -- 7.4 Summary -- References -- Chapter 8 Instabilities and Structure in the High-Latitude Ionosphere -- 8.1 Planetary and Large-Scale Structures in the High-Latitude F Region -- 8.2 Intermediate-Scale Structure in the High-Latitude F Region -- 8.3 Small-Scale Waves in the High-Latitude F Region -- 8.4 Plasma Waves and Irregularities in the High-Latitude E Region-Observations -- 8.5 Auroral Electrojet Theories -- 8.6 Summary -- References -- Appendix A Ionospheric Measurement Techniques -- A.1 Radio Wave Techniques in Ionospheric Physics -- A.2 In Situ Measurements -- References -- Appendix B Reference Material and Equations -- B.1 Atmospheric and Ionospheric Structure -- B.2 Miscellaneous Formulas -- B.3 Surface Magnetic Field Measurements and Magnetic Activity Indices -- References -- Index -- International Geophysics Series.

Note: Front Cover -- Air Chemistry and Radioactivity -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Chapter 1. Gases -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Water Vapor -- 1.3 Carbon Dioxide -- 1.4 Ozone -- 1.5 Sulfur Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide -- 1.6 Hydrogen and Helium -- 1.7 Nitrogen Compounds -- 1.8 Halogens -- 1.9 Methane, Carbon Monoxide, and Formaldehyde -- List of Symbols -- References -- Chapter 2. Aerosols -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Physical Properties of Tropospheric Aerosol Particles -- 2.3 Chemical Composition of Tropospheric Aerosols -- 2.4 Distribution of Aerosols in the Troposphere and Stratospheric Aerosols -- List of Symbols -- References -- Chapter 3. Atmospheric Radioactivity -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Radon and Thoron and Their Decay Products -- 3.3 Radioisotopes Produced by Cosmic Radiation -- 3.4 Artificial Radioactivity -- List of Symbols -- References -- Chapter 4. Chemistry of Precipitation -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Physico-Chemistry of Wet and Dry Removal from the Atmosphere -- 4.3 Chemical Composition of Precipitation -- List of Symbols -- References -- Chapter 5. The Role of Air Pollution In Air Chemistry -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Composition of Polluted Atmospheres -- 5.3 Variation of Pollution in and around Polluted Areas -- References -- Author Index -- Subject Index.

Note: Front Cover -- An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 1. Introduction -- 1.1 Scale Analysis -- 1.2 The Fundamental Forces -- 1.3 Non-Newtonian Reference Frames and "Apparent" Forces -- 1.4 Total Differentiation -- 1.5 Atmospheric Thermodynamics -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 2. The Momentum Equation -- 2.1 Total Differentiation of a Vector in a Rotating System -- 2.2 The Vectorial Form of the Momentum Equation in Rotating Coordinates -- 2.3 The Component Equations in Spherical Coordinates -- 2.4 Scale Analysis of the Equations of Motion -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 3. Elementary Applications of the Horizontal Equations of Motion -- 3.1 The Geostrophic Wind -- 3.2 Balanced Curved Flow -- 3.3 Trajectories and Streamlines -- 3.4 Vertical Shear of the Geostrophic Wind: The Thermal Wind -- Problems -- Suggested Reference -- Chapter 4. The Continuity Equation -- 4.1 Derivation in Cartesian Coordinates -- 4.2 Equation of Continuity in Isobaric Coordinates -- 4.3 Vertical Motion -- 4.4 The Relationship between ω and w -- 4.5 The Measurement of Horizontal Divergence -- Problems -- Chapter 5. Circulation and Vorticity -- 5.1 The Circulation Theorem -- 5.2 Vorticity -- 5.3 Potential Vorticity -- 5.4 The Vorticity Equation -- 5.5 Scale Analysis of the Vorticity Equation -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 6. The Planetary Boundary Layer -- 6.1 The Mixing Length Theory -- 6.2 The Ekman Layer Equations -- 6.3 Secondary Circulations and Spin-Down -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 7. Diagnostic Analysis of Synoptic Scale Motions in Middle Latitudes -- 7.1 The Observed Structure of Midlatitude Synoptic Systems -- 7.2 The Basic Equations in Isobaric Coordinates -- 7.3 Diagnostic Equations. , 7.4 Idealized Model of a Developing Baroclinic System -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 8. Numerical Prediction -- 8.1 Historical Background -- 8.2 Filtering of Sound and Gravity Waves -- 8.3 Filtered Forecast Equations -- 8.4 One-Parameter Models -- 8.5 A Two-Parameter Baroclinic Model -- 8.6 Numerical Solution of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation -- 8.7 Primitive Equation Models -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 9. Atmospheric Oscillations: Linear Perturbation Theory -- 9.1 The Perturbation Method -- 9.2 Properties of Waves -- 9.3 Sound Waves -- 9.4 Gravity Waves: Vertical Stability -- 9.5 Rossby Waves -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 10. The Origin and Motion of Midlatitude Synoptic Systems -- 10.1 Hydrodynamic Instability -- 10.2 Baroclinic Instability: Cyclogenesis -- 10.3 The Energetics of Baroclinic Waves -- 10.4 Fronts and Frontogenesis -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 11. The General Circulation -- 11.1 The Nature of the Problem -- 11.2 The Energy Cycle: A Quasi-Geostrophic Model -- 11.3 The Momentum Budget -- 11.4 The Dynamics of Zonally Symmetric Circulations -- 11.5 Laboratory Simulation of the General Circulation -- 11.6 The Numerical Simulation -- 11.7 The General Circulation of the Stratosphere -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Chapter 12. Tropical Motion Systems -- 12.1 Scale Analysis of Tropical Motions -- 12.2 Cumulus Convection -- 12.3 The Observed Structure of Large-Scale Motions in the Equatorial Zone -- 12.4 The Origin of Equatorial Disturbances -- 12.5 Tropical Cyclones -- Problems -- Suggested References -- Appendix A: Useful Constants -- Appendix B: List of Symbols -- Appendix C: Decomposition of a Vector into the Sum of Irrotational and Nondivergent Parts -- Appendix D: The Equivalent Potential Temperature -- Bibliography -- Index -- International Geophysics Series.

Note: Cover -- Half-title -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- 1 The meteorology of monsoons -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Meteorology of the tropics -- 1.2.1 Observed zonal mean picture -- 1.2.2 Dynamical and thermodynamical constraints on the circulation -- 1.2.3 Longitudinal variations in tropical meteorology -- 1.2.4 Location of the convergence zones -- 1.3 The Indian Ocean monsoon system -- 1.3.1 Intraseasonal variability of the monsoon -- 1.3.2 Interannual variability -- 1.4 Theory of monsoons -- 1.4.1 General considerations -- 1.4.2 Role of orography -- 2 Controls on the Asian monsoon over tectonic timescales -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The influence of Tibet -- 2.2.1 Tectonic evidence for Tibetan uplift -- 2.2.2 Altitude proxies -- 2.2.3 Erosion and the uplift of Tibet -- 2.3 Oceanic controls on monsoon intensity -- 2.4 Summary -- 3 Monsoon evolution on tectonic timescales -- 3.1 Proxies for monsoon intensity -- 3.2 Monsoon reconstruction by oceanic upwelling -- 3.2.1 Monsoon winds in the Arabian Sea -- 3.2.2 Monsoon winds in the Eastern Indian Ocean -- 3.2.3 Monsoon winds in the South China Sea -- 3.2.4 Regional and global influences -- 3.3 Continental climate records -- 3.3.1 Weathering histories in the Western Himalayas -- 3.3.2 Weathering histories in the Eastern Himalayas -- 3.3.3 Weathering histories in Southern China -- 3.4 Eolian dust records -- 3.4.1 Eolian records in the Pacific Ocean -- 3.4.2 Eolian records in the Chinese Loess Plateau -- 3.4.3 Onset of Loess sedimentation -- 3.5 Evolving flora of East Asia -- 3.5.1 Flora evidence for an Early Miocene monsoon -- 3.5.2 Evidence from marine carbon -- 3.6 History of Western Pacific Warm Pool and the Monsoon -- 3.7 Summary -- 4 Monsoon evolution on orbital timescales -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Orbital controls on monsoon strength. , 4.3 Eolian records in North-east Asia -- 4.3.1 Marine records in the Sea of Japan -- 4.3.2 Lake records in Japan -- 4.3.3 Eolian records from the Loess Plateau of China -- 4.3.4 Eolian records from the North Pacific Ocean -- 4.4 Monsoon records from cave deposits -- 4.4.1 Hulu Cave in Eastern China -- 4.4.2 Dongge Cave in SW China -- 4.4.3 Timta Cave in the Western Himalayas -- 4.4.4 Cave records around the Arabian Sea -- 4.5 Monsoon variability recorded in ice caps -- 4.6 Monsoon variability recorded in lacustrine sediments -- 4.7 Salinity records in marine sediments -- 4.8 Pollen records in marine sediments -- 4.9 Paleoproductivity as an indicator of monsoon strength -- 4.9.1 Nitrogen isotopes -- 4.9.2 Organic carbon and phosphorus -- 4.9.3 Opal and foraminifers -- 4.10 The Early Holocene monsoon -- 4.10.1 Climate modeling -- 4.10.2 Peat bog records -- 4.10.3 El Niño Southern Oscillation effects -- 4.10.4 Links to ice volume and CH4 levels -- 4.10.5 Solar forcing -- 4.11 Mid-Late Holocene monsoon -- 4.12 Summary -- 5 Erosional impact of the Asian monsoon -- 5.1 Monsoon and oceanic strontium -- 5.2 Reconstructing erosion records -- 5.3 Reconstructing exhumation -- 5.4 Estimating marine sediment budgets -- 5.5 Erosion in Indochina -- 5.6 Erosion in other regions -- 5.7 Monsoon rains in Oman -- 5.8 Changes in monsoon-driven erosion on orbital timescales -- 5.8.1 Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta -- 5.8.2 Indus Delta -- 5.8.3 South China Sea -- 5.9 Tectonic impact of monsoon strengthening -- 5.9.1 Erosion on millennial timescales -- 5.10 Climatic control over Himalaya exhumation -- 5.11 Summary -- 6 The Late Holocene monsoon and human society -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Holocene climate change and the Fertile Crescent -- 6.3 Holocene climate change and the Indus Valley -- 6.3.1 The Harappan Civilization -- 6.3.2 The Saraswati River. , 6.4 Holocene climate change and early Chinese cultures -- 6.5 Monsoon developments since 1000 AD -- 6.5.1 Ice-core records -- 6.5.2 Tree-ring records -- 6.5.3 Historical correlations -- 6.6 Monsoon and religion -- 6.6.1 Holy monsoon rivers -- 6.6.2 Monsoon religious festivals -- 6.6.3 Monsoons and polytheism -- 6.7 Impacts of future monsoon evolution -- 6.8 Summary -- References -- Further reading -- Index.