Note: Front Cover -- The Atlantic Walrus -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of contributors -- Biographies -- Acknowledgements -- 1 Introduction -- I. Atlantic walrus evolution, ecology and behaviour -- 2 The surprising evolutionary heritage of the Atlantic walrus as chronicled by the fossil record -- Introduction -- Occurrence, preservation and fossil record -- Phylogenetic relationships of Odobenidae -- The 'Imagotariines': The first walruses -- The Dusignathinae: Double-tusked walruses -- Odobeninae: The 'true' walruses -- Trends in walrus evolution and paleobiology -- Locomotion -- Dental evolution and foraging ecology -- The evolution of tusks - 'sled runners' or 'oral antlers?' -- Body size -- Sexual dimorphism -- Baculum -- Walrus biogeography and diversity -- Conservation paleobiology of Odobenus rosmarus -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 3 Ecology and behavior of Atlantic walruses -- Introduction -- Systematics and general appearance -- Distribution and numbers -- Habitat requirements -- Ice conditions -- Haul-out substrate -- Access to prey -- Morphology -- Body size -- Skull and tusks -- Skin and blubber -- Reproduction and life history -- Life-history -- Mating behaviour -- Reproductive cycle -- Nursing behaviour -- Demographic parameters -- Behaviour -- Social behaviour and hauling-out -- Vocalisation -- Diet and foraging behaviour -- Food preferences -- Foraging behaviour -- Energy requirements -- Competitors, predators and pathogens -- Competition with bearded seals -- Natural predators -- Diseases and parasites -- Conclusion -- References -- 4 Stocks, distribution and abundance -- Introduction -- Distribution and abundance by region -- Canada -- Greenland -- Norway -- Russia -- Abundance estimation of walrus -- Tagging of walruses with satellite transmitters -- Perspectives -- References -- II. Walruses and Indigenous peoples. , 5 Pre-Inuit walrus use in Arctic Canada and Greenland, c.2500 BCE to 1250 CE -- Introduction -- Characteristics of walrus ivory -- Pre-Dorset walrus use -- High Arctic -- Low Arctic -- Dorset walrus use -- High Arctic -- Low Arctic -- Discussion and conclusions -- References -- 6 Subsistence walrus hunting in Inuit Nunangat (Arctic Canada) and Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland) from the 13th century CE to... -- Introduction -- Walrus hunting in Inuit Nunangat -- Walrus hunting in Greenland -- Walruses and Inuit cosmology -- Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- III. European walrus use from the Norse to present -- 7 Early European and Greenlandic walrus hunting: Motivations, techniques and practices -- Introduction -- Othere's northern travels: Early descriptions of the walrus ivory trade -- Norse exploitation of Icelandic walrus stocks -- Motivations for the Norse settlement of Greenland -- The organisation of Norse walrus hunting expeditions in Greenland -- Norse hunting methods -- The economic significance of walrus hunting to Greenlandic Norse society -- The processing of walrus ivory in Norse Greenland -- Human-walrus interactions in Norse belief -- The final ivory exports from Greenland -- References -- 8 The exploitation of walrus ivory in medieval Europe -- Introduction -- The medieval use of walrus ivory -- Sources and networks -- Sources -- Workshops -- Trade routes -- Medieval European knowledge of the walrus -- Discussion: causes and consequences -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 9 Modern European commercial walrus exploitation, 1700 to 1960 CE -- Introduction -- Walrus hunting methods -- Boats used for hunting -- Products of walrus hunting -- The economy of hunts -- Economics of ship-based walrus hunting -- Historical harvests by geographical area -- Russian areas -- Svalbard, Arctic Norway -- Eastern Greenland. , Western Greenland -- Eastern Canadian Arctic -- Conclusion -- References -- IV. Future directions and innovations in atlantic walrus research -- 10 Molecular advances in archaeological and biological research on Atlantic walrus -- Introduction -- Population genetics -- Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA -- Historical and archaeological samples -- Source of genetic information -- Contemporary population structure and migration patterns -- Population structure in historical and archaeological walrus populations -- Life-history patterns -- Demographic history and population size change -- Stable isotopes and fatty acids -- Diet and ecology -- Stable isotopes -- Fatty acids -- Population structure and migration -- Stable isotopes -- Future perspectives in genetics, stable isotopes and fatty acids research -- References -- 11 Atlantic walrus management, regulation and conservation -- Introduction -- Range-state summaries -- Norway -- Russia -- Greenland -- Canada -- Regional management advice -- NAMMCO -- Management challenges and ongoing needs -- Conclusion -- References -- 12 Anthropogenic impacts on the Atlantic walrus -- Introduction -- The walrus' vulnerability to disturbance -- Historical and current hunting -- Historical commercial hunting -- Traditional and contemporary subsistence hunting -- Quotas and signs of recovery -- Walrus-fishery interactions -- Direct mortality in bycatch -- Competition for food-'The Icelandic scallop case' -- Fishery-induced degradation of walrus foraging habitats -- Walruses are sensitive to noise -- Potential negative effects of commercial shipping activities -- Shipping activities in the Arctic -- Disturbance from icebreakers and larger vessels -- Future impacts of large-scale trans-Arctic shipping routes? -- Reaction to aircraft -- Negative effects of oil, gas and mining activities. , Noise from offshore seismic surveys and drilling -- Shipping activities related to exploitation of nonrenewable resources -- Oil spills and other marine fouling -- Pollution from terrestrial industrial sources -- Tourism and recreational activities -- General conclusions and recommendations -- Acknowledgements -- References -- 13 The future of Atlantic walrus in a rapidly warming Arctic -- Introduction -- Responses to declining sea ice: The contrasting Pacific and Atlantic scenarios -- How important is sea ice for hauling out? -- The Pacific walrus scenario -- The Atlantic walrus scenario -- How tolerant are walruses to rising temperatures? -- Effects of climatic changes on marine productivity and benthos? -- Will exposure to pathogens increase? -- Increased predation risks -- Ultraviolet radiation -- Perspectives and conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- References -- Index -- Back Cover.