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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF TITTLE'S CONTROL BALANCE THEORY (1999)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Criminology 37 (1999), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1745-9125
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Law
    Notes: Classic statements of control theory propose that individuals who are controlled or bonded will be more likely to be deterred from deviance, while those who are not controlled or bonded will be more likely to turn to deviance. In a recent restatement of control theory, Tittle (1995) offers an alternative viewpoint. Though he agrees that a lack of control (a control deficit) can lead to repressive forms of deviance (predation, defiance, and submission), Tittle also asserts that overcontrol (a control surplus) may lead to autonomous types of deviance (exploitation, plunder, and decadence). Terming it control balance theory, Tittle argues that the amount of control to which one is subject relative to the amount of control one can exercise (i.e., the control ratio) affects not only the probability that one will engage in a deviant act, but also the specific form or type of deviance. In this article, we focus on one of the key hypotheses of control balance theory: an individual's control balance ratio predicts deviant behavior. We examine this hypothesis using two vignettes designed to investigate the repressive acts of predation and defiance. Segmented, nonlinear regression results yield mixed evidence in that both control surpluses and control deficits significantly predict predation and defiance. The theoretical implications of our results for control balance theory are discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00488.x
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Trends in drug overdose deaths in England and Wales 1993–98: methadone does not kill more people than heroin (2003)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 98 (2003), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims  To test the hypothesis that methadone is responsible for a greater increase in overdose deaths than heroin, and causes proportionally more overdose deaths than heroin at weekends.Design and setting  Multivariate analysis of 3961 death certificates mentioning heroin, morphine and/or methadone held on the Office for National Statistics drug-related poisoning mortality database from 1993 to 1998 in England and Wales.Measurements  Percentage increase in deaths by year by drug, odds ratio (OR) of dying at the weekend from methadone-related overdose compared to dying from heroin/morphine overdose.Findings  From 1993 to 1998, annual opiate overdose deaths increased from 378 to 909. There was a 24.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 22–28%) yearly increase in heroin deaths compared to 9.4% (95% CI 6–13%) for methadone only. This difference was significant (P 〈 0.001 by test of interaction) after adjustment for sex, age group, polydrug use, area of residence and underlying cause of death. The largest number of deaths occurred on Saturday (673). The OR of death from methadone overdose on Saturday and Sunday was 1.48 (95% CI 1.29–1.71) for methadone-only deaths compared to dying from heroin/morphine at the weekend after adjustment for other covariates, but the OR was not significant (1.09, 95% CI 0.95–1.25) if the weekend was defined as Friday and Saturday.Conclusions  There was no evidence that the threefold increase in deaths over time was due to methadone. There was equivocal support only for the hypothesis that there was an excess of deaths from methadone at weekends. Increased interventions to prevent overdose among injectors in England and Wales are long overdue.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00294.x
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    REPORTING BIAS AND SELF-REPORTED DRUG USE (2005)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 100 (2005), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01099.x
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Capturing crack cocaine use: estimating the prevalence of crack cocaine use in London using capture–recapture with covariates (2005)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 100 (2005), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim  To estimate the prevalence of crack cocaine use in 12 London Boroughs (and London as a whole).Setting  Twelve London Boroughs, 2000–01.Methods  (1) Covariate capture–recapture techniques applied to three data sources of subjects reporting crack cocaine use: specialist drug treatment (2905), arrest referral (1188) and accident and emergency and community survey (531); and (2) ratio-estimation multiplier, using an estimate of number of injecting drug users and proportion that use crack cocaine.Findings  After matching, 4117 individuals aged 15–44 were identified. The best-fitting model estimated 16 855 unobserved crack cocaine users, giving an overall estimate of approximately 21 000 [95% confidence interval (CI) 13 000–43 000] and a prevalence of 1.5% (95% CI 1.0–3.2%). Prevalence of crack cocaine use was 2.4% (95% CI 1.5–5.0%) among men and 0.7% (95% CI 0.5–1.0%) among women, and similar by age groups 15–29 and 30–44 years. Overall, approximately 11 900 (57%) of the estimated number of crack cocaine users were also opiate users. In London as a whole there may be 46 000 (1.3%) crack cocaine users aged 15–44 years, with 28 000 (1.9%) in inner London—four times higher than estimates from population surveys. Some corroboration was provided by the ratio-estimation method, which estimated 23 000 users in the 12 Boroughs.Conclusions  Capture–recapture can be applied to crack cocaine and obtain better estimates than population surveys. The size of the crack cocaine-using population in London is large, although currently the majority are also opiate users. Given that half of current users are under 30 the problems associated with crack cocaine use are likely to increase in the future.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01244.x
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    DOES SELF-CONTROL AFFECT SURVEY RESPONSE? APPLYING EXPLORATORY, CONFIRMATORY, AND ITEM RESPONSE THEORY ANALYSIS TO GRASMICK ET AL.'S SELF-CONTROL SCALE (2000)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Criminology 38 (2000), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1745-9125
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Law
    Notes: Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) A General Theory of Crime has sparked a great deal of theoretical debate and empirical investigation. Tests of the theory have focused on measuring the core element, the latent trait of self-control. The majority of this research has used the 24-item scale developed by Grasmick et al. (1993), and a great deal of attention has been directed at the validity of this scale. Empirical debate revolves around the unidimensionality of the scale as established using conventional factor analytic techniques [exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)]. In this paper, we provide the first application of an item response theory (IRT) Rasch model to the validation of the Grasmick et al. scale. IRT models focus on the interaction between the human subject and survey items, and the extent to which cumulative scales fail to provide fundamental measurement. Our results suggest that although conventional factor analyses yield results similar to those previously reported, IRT analysis reveals that one's level of self-control influences self-report responses, a finding consistent with Hirschi and Gottfredson.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00910.x
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Effectiveness of preventing frequent cannabis use among young people in improving educational achievement: eradicating frequent cannabis use among adolescents could reduce school dropout by 3% (2004)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 99 (2004), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00731.x
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Over a decade of syringe exchange: results from 1997 UK survey (2002)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 97 (2002), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: To describe syringe exchange provision in the United Kingdom .〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉DesignTwo-phase cross-sectional survey: phase I, establishing a sampling frame of syringe exchange coordinators (n = 420); phase II, surveying the coordinators seeking data on the number of syringe exchange outlets, visits and syringes distributed during April 1997 (68% response rate).〈section xml:id="abs1-4"〉〈title type="main"〉SettingUnited Kingdom.〈section xml:id="abs1-5"〉〈title type="main"〉FindingsIn 1997, nearly all Health Authorities in the United Kingdom (96%) operated some form of syringe exchange service, except Northern Ireland. In April 1997, 1 707 000 syringes were reported as being distributed. Assuming that non-responders coordinated the median number of outlets and distributed the median number of syringes as responders, we estimate that 27 million syringes were distributed annually from over 2000 outlets in the United Kingdom. The number distributed in Scotland was 3–4 times less than in England when measured as a number per adult (15–44), drug user in treatment, or estimated injecting drug user.〈section xml:id="abs1-6"〉〈title type="main"〉ConclusionsOverall, there has been a 6.5-fold increase in syringe distribution in England since 1991. The number of syringes distributed in the United Kingdom may be higher than the United States. However, there appears to be unequal distribution of syringes within the United Kingdom, which may be associated with higher levels of HCV among injectors in Scotland compared to England.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00128.x
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The prevalence of injecting drug use in a Russian city: implications for harm reduction and coverage (2004)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Addiction 99 (2004), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aim  This study sought to estimate the prevalence of injecting drug users (IDU) in Togliatti city and to examine the implications of these estimates for HIV prevalence and harm reduction.Design  Routine data sources of IDUs were identified. Covariate capture–recapture techniques were used on the individuals identified on the three data sources and used to estimate the number of IDU ‘not observed’ by the data sources, and thereby estimate the prevalence of IDU.Setting  Togliatti City, Samara Oblast, Russian Federation.Participants  IDUs recorded on three data sources (narcology records, HIV positive test results and police arrest data) during 2001.Measurements  Poisson regression models were fitted to the observed data, with interactions between data sources fitted to replicate ‘dependencies’ between those data sources. To select the best model the goodness of fit was approximated by χ2 distribution and the best-fitting model was selected on the basis of standard information criteria and log likelihood ratio tests.Findings  The total estimated population of IDUs is 20 226 [95% confidence interval (CI): 16 971–24 749] giving a population prevalence of 5.4% (95% CI: 4.5–6.6%) of the registered population and 2.7% (95% CI: 2.4–3.5%) of the population (including migrants) aged 15–44 years. For every one IDU in contact with a service there were three out of contact.Conclusions  There  is  a  high  prevalence  of  IDU  which,  in  the  context  of  a fast-emerging IDU-associated HIV epidemic, will have serious public health implications.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00848.x
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Estimating the prevalence of problem drug use in inner London: a discussion of three capture-recapture studies (1999)
    Oxford, UK : Carfax Publishing, Taylor & Francis Ltd
    Addiction 94 (1999), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims. To provide an evidence base of estimates of the prevalence of problem drug use in inner London. Design. Re-analysis of three capture-recapture studies using subjects aged 15-49 years, that aim to estimate the hidden population from analysing the overlaps between three data sources. Setting. Newham (1995) Camden and Islington (C&I) (1993/4) and Lambeth, Southwark and Lewisham (LSL) (1992). Participants. Each study collected data from three sources of problem drug users including: the Regional Drug Misuse Database, specialist drug agencies, HIV tests, social services, police arrests and court records. In LSL opiate users were analysed separately. The studies identified 1832 individuals in LSL, 543 in Newham, and 1321 in C&I. Measurements. Poisson models were fitted to the data testing different interactions between the data sources representing potential dependencies. The simplest model was selected on the basis of its AIC score and log-likelihood ratio tests. Findings. The number of hidden problem drug users were estimated to be 12 500 (95% CI 9600-16100) in LSL with 4400 (3200-6100) opiate users; 7000 (5000-10000) in C&I and 3800 (2000-7200) in Newham. The prevalence of problem drug use in those aged 15-49 was estimated to be 3.1% (2.5-3.9%) in LSL with 1.3% (1.0-1.6%) opiate users; and 3.6% (2.7-4.9%) and 3.3% (1.9-5.7%) in C&I and Newham, respectively. Conclusions. Despite the inherent problems with capture-recapture methods, our three studies establish an evidence base for estimates of problem drug use in London. It is important that a larger study is carried out in London.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.941116534.x
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Measuring injecting risk behaviour in the second decade of harm reduction: a survey of injecting drug users in England (2000)
    Oxford, UK : Carfax Publishing, part of the Taylor & Francis Group
    Addiction 95 (2000), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1360-0443
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Medicine , Psychology
    Notes: Aims. To measure risk behaviour among injecting drug users (IDUs) using the Injecting Risk Questionnaire (IRQ). Methods. Data were analysed from the first multi-site survey of injecting risk behaviour among IDUs not in contact with drug services in England. A total of 1214 IDUs were recruited from community settings in seven sites. Findings. Fifty-two per cent reported sharing injecting equipment in the previous 4 weeks in response to a single question on sharing. This rose to 78% when asked more detailed and multiple questions on injecting risk practices. Levels of injecting risk behaviour did not differ substantially by gender, age, length of injecting career, main drug of injection, previous treatment contact or geographical location. However, sharing partners were restricted to a median of two others. Conclusion. These data raise questions concerning the extent to which levels of injecting risk behaviour have increased over recent years, or the extent to which previous monitoring systems underestimated levels of risk. None the less, the data confirm that the promotion of safer injecting continues to be an important public health issue with regard to reducing blood-borne infections.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95913516.x
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