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  • 1
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    The effect of diurnal sea surface temperature warming on climatological air–sea fluxes (2013)
    American Meteorological Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2013. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Climate 26 (2013): 2546–2556, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00062.1.
    Description: Diurnal sea surface warming affects the fluxes of latent heat, sensible heat, and upwelling longwave radiation. Diurnal warming most typically reaches maximum values of 3°C, although very localized events may reach 7°–8°C. An analysis of multiple years of diurnal warming over the global ice-free oceans indicates that heat fluxes determined by using the predawn sea surface temperature can differ by more than 100% in localized regions over those in which the sea surface temperature is allowed to fluctuate on a diurnal basis. A comparison of flux climatologies produced by these two analyses demonstrates that significant portions of the tropical oceans experience differences on a yearly average of up to 10 W m−2. Regions with the highest climatological differences include the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, as well as the equatorial western and eastern Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the western coasts of Central America and North Africa. Globally the difference is on average 4.45 W m−2. The difference in the evaporation rate globally is on the order of 4% of the total ocean–atmosphere evaporation. Although the instantaneous, year-to-year, and seasonal fluctuations in various locations can be substantial, the global average differs by less than 0.1 W m−2 throughout the entire 10-yr time period. A global heat budget that uses atmospheric datasets containing diurnal variability but a sea surface temperature that has removed this signal may be underestimating the flux to the atmosphere by a fairly constant value.
    Description: We acknowledge, with pleasure, NASA Physical Oceanography program support and the support of the NOAA Climate Data Records program. A. Bogdanoff was also supported by the NASA Graduate Student Researchers Program and the Department of Defense through the National Defense Science & Engineering Graduate (NDSEG) Fellowship Program.
    Description: 2013-10-15
    Keywords: Air-sea interaction ; Heat budgets/fluxes ; Moisture/moisture budget ; Surface fluxes ; Surface temperature
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
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  • 2
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    Air-sea fluxes with a focus on heat and momentum (2019)
    Frontiers Media
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-10-20
    Description: © The Author(s), 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Cronin, M. F., Gentemann, C. L., Edson, J., Ueki, I., Bourassa, M., Brown, S., Clayson, C. A., Fairall, C. W., Farrar, J. T., Gille, S. T., Gulev, S., Josey, S. A., Kato, S., Katsumata, M., Kent, E., Krug, M., Minnett, P. J., Parfitt, R., Pinker, R. T., Stackhouse, P. W., Jr., Swart, S., Tomita, H., Vandemark, D., Weller, R. A., Yoneyama, K., Yu, L., & Zhang, D. Air-sea fluxes with a focus on heat and momentum. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, (2019): 430, doi:10.3389/fmars.2019.00430.
    Description: Turbulent and radiative exchanges of heat between the ocean and atmosphere (hereafter heat fluxes), ocean surface wind stress, and state variables used to estimate them, are Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs) and Essential Climate Variables (ECVs) influencing weather and climate. This paper describes an observational strategy for producing 3-hourly, 25-km (and an aspirational goal of hourly at 10-km) heat flux and wind stress fields over the global, ice-free ocean with breakthrough 1-day random uncertainty of 15 W m–2 and a bias of less than 5 W m–2. At present this accuracy target is met only for OceanSITES reference station moorings and research vessels (RVs) that follow best practices. To meet these targets globally, in the next decade, satellite-based observations must be optimized for boundary layer measurements of air temperature, humidity, sea surface temperature, and ocean wind stress. In order to tune and validate these satellite measurements, a complementary global in situ flux array, built around an expanded OceanSITES network of time series reference station moorings, is also needed. The array would include 500–1000 measurement platforms, including autonomous surface vehicles, moored and drifting buoys, RVs, the existing OceanSITES network of 22 flux sites, and new OceanSITES expanded in 19 key regions. This array would be globally distributed, with 1–3 measurement platforms in each nominal 10° by 10° box. These improved moisture and temperature profiles and surface data, if assimilated into Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models, would lead to better representation of cloud formation processes, improving state variables and surface radiative and turbulent fluxes from these models. The in situ flux array provides globally distributed measurements and metrics for satellite algorithm development, product validation, and for improving satellite-based, NWP and blended flux products. In addition, some of these flux platforms will also measure direct turbulent fluxes, which can be used to improve algorithms for computation of air-sea exchange of heat and momentum in flux products and models. With these improved air-sea fluxes, the ocean’s influence on the atmosphere will be better quantified and lead to improved long-term weather forecasts, seasonal-interannual-decadal climate predictions, and regional climate projections.
    Description: EK was funded by the NERC CLASS Program (NE/R015953/1). CLG was funded by NASA grant 80NSSC18K0837. SG was funded by MEGAGRANT P220 program (#14.W03.31.0006).
    Keywords: Air-sea heat flux ; Latent heat flux ; Surface radiation ; Ocean wind stress ; Autonomous surface vehicle ; OceanSITES ; ICOADS ; Satellite-based ocean monitoring system
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 3
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    Diurnal surface flux variability over western boundary currents (2019)
    American Geophysical Union
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    Publication Date: 2022-10-20
    Description: © The Author(s), 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial‐NoDerivs License. The definitive version was published in Clayson, C. A., & Edson, J. B. Diurnal surface flux variability over western boundary currents. Geophysical Research Letters, 46(15), (2019): 9174-9182, doi:10.1029/2019GL082826.
    Description: An analysis of a satellite ocean surface turbulent flux product demonstrated that, as expected, the western boundary current regions dominate the seasonal cycle amplitude. Surprisingly, our analysis of the global ocean diurnal flux variability also demonstrated a regional maximum in the winter over the western boundary current regions. We conducted comparisons with in situ data from several buoys located in these regions. The buoy data were in general agreement with the relative magnitude, timing, and importance of each of the bulk parameters driving the latent and sensible heat fluxes. Further analysis demonstrated that the strength and timing of the diurnal signal is related to the location of the buoy relative to the region of maximum heat flux and sea surface temperature gradient. In both regions, the timing of the higher winds coincides with the moistest surface layer, indicating that surface fluxes rather than entrainment mixing play a key role in this phenomenon.
    Description: CAC gratefully acknowledges funding from the NASA MAP and NEWS programs (NNX13AN48G and NNX15AI47A). CLIMODE data were funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (http://uop.whoi.edu/projects/CLIMODE/climodedata.html). KEO data are provided by the OCS Project Office of NOAA/PMEL (https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/ocs/data/disdel/). JKEO data are provided by RIGC/JAMSTEC and PMEL/NOAA (http://www.jamstec.go.jp/iorgc/ocorp/ktsfg/data/jkeo/). SeaFlux data are provided by the U.S. NOAA Climate Data Record Program (https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdr).
    Keywords: Diurnal variability ; Western boundary currents ; Surface fluxes ; Atmospheric boundary layer
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 4
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    Shear turbulence in the high-wind Southern Ocean using direct measurements (2022)
    American Meteorological Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-10-12
    Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2022. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Physical Oceanography 52(10), (2022): 2325–2341, https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-21-0015.1.
    Description: The ocean surface boundary layer is a gateway of energy transfer into the ocean. Wind-driven shear and meteorologically forced convection inject turbulent kinetic energy into the surface boundary layer, mixing the upper ocean and transforming its density structure. In the absence of direct observations or the capability to resolve subgrid-scale 3D turbulence in operational ocean models, the oceanography community relies on surface boundary layer similarity scalings (BLS) of shear and convective turbulence to represent this mixing. Despite their importance, near-surface mixing processes (and ubiquitous BLS representations of these processes) have been undersampled in high-energy forcing regimes such as the Southern Ocean. With the maturing of autonomous sampling platforms, there is now an opportunity to collect high-resolution spatial and temporal measurements in the full range of forcing conditions. Here, we characterize near-surface turbulence under strong wind forcing using the first long-duration glider microstructure survey of the Southern Ocean. We leverage these data to show that the measured turbulence is significantly higher than standard shear-convective BLS in the shallower parts of the surface boundary layer and lower than standard shear-convective BLS in the deeper parts of the surface boundary layer; the latter of which is not easily explained by present wave-effect literature. Consistent with the CBLAST (Coupled Boundary Layers and Air Sea Transfer) low winds experiment, this bias has the largest magnitude and spread in the shallowest 10% of the actively mixing layer under low-wind and breaking wave conditions, when relatively low levels of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in surface regime are easily biased by wave events.
    Description: This paper is VIMS Contribution 4103. Computational resources were provided by the VIMS Ocean-Atmosphere and Climate Change Research Fund. AUSSOM was supported by the OCE Division of the National Science Foundation (1558639).
    Keywords: Turbulence ; Wind shear ; Boundary layer ; Parameterization
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 5
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    Super sites for advancing understanding of the oceanic and atmospheric boundary layers (2021)
    Marine Technology Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-27
    Description: © The Author(s), 2021. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Clayson, C. A., Centurioni, L., Cronin, M. F., Edson, J., Gille, S., Muller-Karger, F., Parfitt, R., Riihimaki, L. D., Smith, S. R., Swart, S., Vandemark, D., Boas, A. B. V., Zappa, C. J., & Zhang, D. Super sites for advancing understanding of the oceanic and atmospheric boundary layers. Marine Technology Society Journal, 55(3), (2021): 144–145, https://doi.org/10.4031/MTSJ.55.3.11.
    Description: Air‐sea interactions are critical to large-scale weather and climate predictions because of the ocean's ability to absorb excess atmospheric heat and carbon and regulate exchanges of momentum, water vapor, and other greenhouse gases. These exchanges are controlled by molecular, turbulent, and wave-driven processes in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers. Improved understanding and representation of these processes in models are key for increasing Earth system prediction skill, particularly for subseasonal to decadal time scales. Our understanding and ability to model these processes within this coupled system is presently inadequate due in large part to a lack of data: contemporaneous long-term observations from the top of the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) to the base of the oceanic mixing layer. We propose the concept of “Super Sites” to provide multi-year suites of measurements at specific locations to simultaneously characterize physical and biogeochemical processes within the coupled boundary layers at high spatial and temporal resolution. Measurements will be made from floating platforms, buoys, towers, and autonomous vehicles, utilizing both in-situ and remote sensors. The engineering challenges and level of coordination, integration, and interoperability required to develop these coupled ocean‐atmosphere Super Sites place them in an “Ocean Shot” class.
    Description: NOAA CVP TPOS, Understanding Processes Controlling Near-Surface Salinity in the Tropical Ocean Using Multiscale Coupled Modeling and Analysis, NA18OAR4310402 to CAC and JE. NSF Award PLR-1425989 and OPP-1936222, Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling (SOCCOM) to SG. NOAA, BOEM, ONR, NSF, NOPP, NASA Applied Sciences Office, Biodiversity & Ecological Forecasting Program; National Science Foundation (Co-PI J. Pearlman); OceanObs Research Coordination Network (OCE-1728913) to FM-K. NASA, SWOT program, Award # 80NSSC20K1136 to ABVB. NSF, Investigating the Air-Sea Energy Exchange in the presence of Surface Gravity Waves by Measurements of Turbulence Dissipation, Production and Transport, OCE 17-56839; NSF, A Multi-Spectral Thermal Infrared Imaging System for Air-Sea Interaction Research, OCE 20-23678; NSF, Investigating the Relationship Between Ocean Surface Gravity–Capillary Waves, Surface-Layer Hydrodynamics, and Air–Sea Momentum Flux, OCE 20-49579 to CJZ. Partially funded by NOAA/Climate Program Office and the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean (JISAO) under NOAA Cooperative Agreement NA15OAR4320063 to DZ.
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  • 6
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    The observed state of the water cycle in the early twenty-first century (2015)
    American Meteorological Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2015. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Climate 28 (2015): 8289–8318, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00555.1.
    Description: This study quantifies mean annual and monthly fluxes of Earth’s water cycle over continents and ocean basins during the first decade of the millennium. To the extent possible, the flux estimates are based on satellite measurements first and data-integrating models second. A careful accounting of uncertainty in the estimates is included. It is applied within a routine that enforces multiple water and energy budget constraints simultaneously in a variational framework in order to produce objectively determined optimized flux estimates. In the majority of cases, the observed annual surface and atmospheric water budgets over the continents and oceans close with much less than 10% residual. Observed residuals and optimized uncertainty estimates are considerably larger for monthly surface and atmospheric water budget closure, often nearing or exceeding 20% in North America, Eurasia, Australia and neighboring islands, and the Arctic and South Atlantic Oceans. The residuals in South America and Africa tend to be smaller, possibly because cold land processes are negligible. Fluxes were poorly observed over the Arctic Ocean, certain seas, Antarctica, and the Australasian and Indonesian islands, leading to reliance on atmospheric analysis estimates. Many of the satellite systems that contributed data have been or will soon be lost or replaced. Models that integrate ground-based and remote observations will be critical for ameliorating gaps and discontinuities in the data records caused by these transitions. Continued development of such models is essential for maximizing the value of the observations. Next-generation observing systems are the best hope for significantly improving global water budget accounting.
    Description: This research was funded by multiple grants from NASA’s Energy and Water Cycle Study (NEWS) program.
    Description: 2016-05-01
    Keywords: Physical Meteorology and Climatology ; Water budget ; Observational techniques and algorithms ; Remote sensing ; Mathematical and statistical techniques ; Numerical analysis/modeling
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 7
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    The observed state of the energy budget in the early twenty-first century (2015)
    American Meteorological Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2015. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Climate 28 (2015): 8319-8346, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00556.1.
    Description: New objectively balanced observation-based reconstructions of global and continental energy budgets and their seasonal variability are presented that span the golden decade of Earth-observing satellites at the start of the twenty-first century. In the absence of balance constraints, various combinations of modern flux datasets reveal that current estimates of net radiation into Earth’s surface exceed corresponding turbulent heat fluxes by 13–24 W m−2. The largest imbalances occur over oceanic regions where the component algorithms operate independent of closure constraints. Recent uncertainty assessments suggest that these imbalances fall within anticipated error bounds for each dataset, but the systematic nature of required adjustments across different regions confirm the existence of biases in the component fluxes. To reintroduce energy and water cycle closure information lost in the development of independent flux datasets, a variational method is introduced that explicitly accounts for the relative accuracies in all component fluxes. Applying the technique to a 10-yr record of satellite observations yields new energy budget estimates that simultaneously satisfy all energy and water cycle balance constraints. Globally, 180 W m−2 of atmospheric longwave cooling is balanced by 74 W m−2 of shortwave absorption and 106 W m−2 of latent and sensible heat release. At the surface, 106 W m−2 of downwelling radiation is balanced by turbulent heat transfer to within a residual heat flux into the oceans of 0.45 W m−2, consistent with recent observations of changes in ocean heat content. Annual mean energy budgets and their seasonal cycles for each of seven continents and nine ocean basins are also presented.
    Description: This study is the result of a collaboration of multiple investigators each supported by the NEWS program.
    Keywords: Climatology ; Energy budget/balance ; Heat budgets/fluxes ; Radiative fluxes ; Surface fluxes ; Satellite observations
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 8
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    Uncertainties in ocean latent heat flux variations over recent decades in satellite-based estimates and reduced observation reanalyses (2021)
    American Meteorological Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: Author Posting. © American Meteorological Society, 2020. This article is posted here by permission of American Meteorological Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Climate 33(19), (2020): 8415-8437, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0954.1.
    Description: Four state-of-the-art satellite-based estimates of ocean surface latent heat fluxes (LHFs) extending over three decades are analyzed, focusing on the interannual variability and trends of near-global averages and regional patterns. Detailed intercomparisons are made with other datasets including 1) reduced observation reanalyses (RedObs) whose exclusion of satellite data renders them an important independent diagnostic tool; 2) a moisture budget residual LHF estimate using reanalysis moisture transport, atmospheric storage, and satellite precipitation; 3) the ECMWF Reanalysis 5 (ERA5); 4) Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) single-sensor passive microwave and scatterometer wind speed retrievals; and 5) several sea surface temperature (SST) datasets. Large disparities remain in near-global satellite LHF trends and their regional expression over the 1990–2010 period, during which time the interdecadal Pacific oscillation changed sign. The budget residual diagnostics support the smaller RedObs LHF trends. The satellites, ERA5, and RedObs are reasonably consistent in identifying contributions by the 10-m wind speed variations to the LHF trend patterns. However, contributions by the near-surface vertical humidity gradient from satellites and ERA5 trend upward in time with respect to the RedObs ensemble and show less agreement in trend patterns. Problems with wind speed retrievals from Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder satellite sensors, excessive upward trends in trends in Optimal Interpolation Sea Surface Temperature (OISST AVHRR-Only) data used in most satellite LHF estimates, and uncertainties associated with poor satellite coverage before the mid-1990s are noted. Possibly erroneous trends are also identified in ERA5 LHF associated with the onset of scatterometer wind data assimilation in the early 1990s.
    Description: FRR, JBR, and MGB acknowledge support for this investigation through the NASA Energy and Water Cycle Study (NEWS), Dr. Jared Entin, Program Manager. MS acknowledges the financial support by the EUMETSAT member states through CM SAF. The NOAA-CIRES-DOE Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project version 3 used resources of the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center managed by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, which is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC02-05CH11231 and used resources of NOAA’s remotely deployed high-performance computing systems. Support for the Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project version 3 dataset is provided by the U.S. DOE, Office of Science Biological and Environmental Research (BER), by the NOAA Climate Program Office, and by the NOAA Physical Sciences Laboratory. RSS products are supported by funding from the NASA Earth Science Division. H. Tomita acknowledges support from JSPS Grants JP18H03726, JP18H03737, and JP19H05696 and JAXA Announcement EO-2. We gratefully acknowledge provision and institutional support for the following SST datasets: ESA CCI (http://data.ceda.ac.uk/neodc/esacci/sst/data/CDR_v2/); NOAA Optimum Interpolation 1/4 Degree Daily Sea Surface Temperature (OISST) Analysis, version 2, (https:/doi.org/10.7289/V5SQ8XB5); NOAA ERSST v5 (https:/doi.org/10.7289/V5T72FNM) and access to COBE-SST2 provided by the NOAA/OAR/ESRL PSD (boyin.huang@noaa.gov); 20CRv3 data are available at the NERSC Science Tape Gateway via portal.nersc.gov.
    Description: 2021-03-01
    Keywords: Atmosphere-ocean interaction ; Hydrologic cycle ; Microwave observations ; Satellite observations ; Reanalysis data ; Decadal variability
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  • 9
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    Effects of rainfall on the atmosphere and the ocean during spurs-2 (2019)
    Oceanography Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: © The Author(s), 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Clayson, C. A., Edson, J. B., Paget, A., Graham, R., & Greenwood, B. Effects of rainfall on the atmosphere and the ocean during spurs-2. Oceanography, 32(2), (2019):86-97, doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2019.216.
    Description: The salinity variability of the upper ocean is influenced by surface heat, momentum, and freshwater fluxes, which are in turn affected by atmospheric conditions. It is necessary to accurately measure these surface fluxes within their atmospheric environment to understand the linkages between rain events and the resulting upper-ocean salinity balance that occurs at cloud scales. We describe a comprehensive set of atmospheric and oceanic data collected during the second Salinity Processes in the Upper-ocean Regional Study (SPURS-2) experiment in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean. These measurements included direct estimates of heat, moisture, and momentum fluxes using direct covariance flux systems on R/V Roger Revelle and a 3 m discus buoy. These are the first successful direct measurements of evaporation from a buoy over an extended period. The atmospheric moisture budget is estimated from a combination of data, including measured freshwater fluxes, upper air sounding data, and satellite data. This analysis reconfirms the important role of moisture convergence beneath the Intertropical Convergence Zone in this region. We perform an analysis of the near-surface vertical salinity structure and its relationship to these surface fluxes, highlighting the roles of stabilization by solar insolation and precipitation and the effects of rainfall on mixing of the upper ocean.
    Description: This research was supported by NASA under grants NNX15AF70G and NNX15AG20G.
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  • 10
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    Novel and flexible approach to access the open ocean: Uses of sailing research vessel Lady Amber during SPURS-2. (2019)
    Oceanography Society
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-26
    Description: © The Author(s), 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Rainville, L., Centurioni, L. R., Asher, W. E., Clayson, C. A., Drushka, K., Edson, J. B., Hodges, B. A., Hermann, V., Farrar, J. T., Schanze, J. J., & Shcherbina, A. Y. Novel and flexible approach to access the open ocean: Uses of sailing research vessel Lady Amber during SPURS-2. Oceanography, 32(2), (2019): 116-121, doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2019.219.
    Description: SPURS-2 (Salinity Processes in the Upper-ocean Regional Study 2) used the schooner Lady Amber, a small sailing research vessel, to deploy, service, maintain, and recover a variety of oceanographic and meteorological instruments in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Low operational costs allowed us to frequently deploy floats and drifters to collect data necessary for resolving the regional circulation of the eastern tropical Pacific. The small charter gave us the opportunity to deploy drifters in locations chosen according to current conditions, to recover and deploy various autonomous instruments in a targeted and adaptive manner, and to collect additional near-surface and atmospheric measurements in the remote SPURS-2 region.
    Description: Tragically, Lady Amber Captain Peter Flanagan passed away on March 15, 2016, after the initial transit. This was a big loss for his friends and crew—his enthusiasm will be sorely missed. We acknowledge the owner and crew of Lady Amber for remaining committed to the SPURS-2 work. This work would not have been possible without Captain Arran Flanagan and Captain Ryan Struthers and the capable crew of Lady Amber. This project was supported by NASA grant NNX15AT40G. We also acknowledge the contribution of Justin Burnett, Jesse Dosher, and Aaron Paget to the design and installation of the LAPS, and the support and cooperation from all the SPURS-2 PIs.
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