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  • 1
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 77, No. 1 ( 2023-01), p. 94-105
    Abstract: We describe a waterproof, lightweight (1.3 kg), low-power (∼1.1 W average power) fluorometer operating on 5 V direct current deployed on a small uncrewed aircraft system (sUAS) to measure chlorophyll and used for triggering environmental water sampling by the sUAS. The fluorometer uses a 450 nm laser modulated at 10 Hz for excitation and a standard photodiode and transimpedance amplifier for the detection of fluorescence. Additional detectors are available for measuring laser intensity and light scattering. Control of the fluorometer and communication between the fluorometer and the Raspberry Pi 4B computer controlling the sampler were provided by an Arduino microcontroller using the robot operating system (ROS). Calibrations were based on standards of dissolved chlorophyll extracted from Chlorella powder (a widely available dietary supplement). The detection limit for chlorophyll from these calibrations was found to be 0.2 μg per liter of water for a single 0.1 s differential measurement. The detection limit decreases with the square root of the integration time as expected. Detection limits increase by a factor of two to three when mounted in the sUAS due to electrical noise; sUAS acoustic noise and vibration do not appear to contribute significantly.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
    SSG: 11
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  • 2
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    SAGE Publications ; 2023
    In:  Applied Spectroscopy Vol. 77, No. 9 ( 2023-09), p. 1053-1063
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 77, No. 9 ( 2023-09), p. 1053-1063
    Abstract: We recently described a lightweight, low-power, waterproof filter fluorometer using a 180° backscatter geometry for chlorophyll-a (chl- a) detection. Before it was constructed it was modeled to ensure it would have satisfactory performance. This manuscript repeats the modeling process that allows the calibration slope and detection limit for a fluorescent analyte in water to be estimated from system component performance and conventional spectrofluorometry alone. These values are validated by comparison to the experimental result of calibration from the completed instrument. Our model yields a calibration slope of 8.22 mV-L/µg for dissolved chl- a, consistent with the experimentally measured slope of 8.21 mV-L/µg. The detection limit modeled from this slope and an estimate of the baseline noise of the instrument was 0.15 µg/L chl- a, while the measured detection limit using real blank samples was 0.18 µg/L, in 0.1 s differential measurements.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
    SSG: 11
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  • 3
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 67, No. 6 ( 2013-06), p. 620-629
    Abstract: Phytoplankton are single-celled, photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria found in all aquatic environments. Differential pigmentation between phytoplankton taxa allows use of fluorescence excitation spectroscopy for discrimination and classification. For this work, we applied multivariate optical computing (MOC) to emulate linear discriminant vectors of phytoplankton fluorescence excitation spectra by using a simple filter-fluorometer arrangement. We grew nutrient-replete cultures of three differently pigmented species: the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi, the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana, and the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was used to determine a suitable set of linear discriminant functions for classification of these species over an optimal wavelength range. Multivariate optical elements (MOEs) were then designed to predict the linear discriminant scores for the same calibration spectra. The theoretical performance specifications of these MOEs are described.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2013
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
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  • 4
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 67, No. 6 ( 2013-06), p. 640-647
    Abstract: We describe the automatic analysis of fluorescence tracks of phytoplankton recorded with a fluorescence imaging photometer. The optical components and construction of the photometer were described in Part I and Part II of this series in this issue. An algorithm first isolates tracks corresponding to a single phytoplankter transit in the nominal focal plane of a flow cell. Then, the fluorescence streaks in the track that correspond to individual optical elements on the filter wheel are identified. The fluorescence intensity of each streak is integrated and used to calculate ratios. This approach was tested using 853 fluorescence measurements of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi and the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana. Average intensity ratios for the two classes closely follow those predicted in Part I of this series, with a distribution of ratios in each class that is consistent with the signal-to-noise ratio calculations in Part II for single cells. No overlap of the two class ratios was observed, yielding perfect classification.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2013
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
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  • 5
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 67, No. 6 ( 2013-06), p. 630-639
    Abstract: Differential pigmentation between phytoplankton allows use of fluorescence excitation spectroscopy for the discrimination and classification of different taxa. Here, we describe the design and performance of a fluorescence imaging photometer that exploits taxonomic differences for discrimination and classification. The fluorescence imaging photometer works by illuminating individual phytoplankton cells through an asynchronous spinning filter wheel, which produces bar code-like streaks in a fluorescence image. A filter position is covered with an opaque filter to create a reference dark position in the filter wheel rotation that is used to match each fluorescence streak with the corresponding filter. Fluorescence intensities of the imaged streaks are then analyzed for the purpose of spectral analysis, which allows taxonomic classification of the organism that produced the streaks. The theoretical performance and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) specifications of these MOEs are described in Part I of this series. This report describes optical layout, flow cell design, magnification, depth of field, constraints on filter wheel and flow velocities, procedures for blank subtraction and flat-field correction, the measurement scheme of the instrument, and measurement of SNR as a measurement of filter wheel frequency. This is followed by an analysis of the sources of variance in measurements made by the photometer on the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. We conclude that the SNR of E. huxleyi measurements is not limited by the sensitivity or noise attributes of the measurement system, but by dynamics in the fluorescence efficiency of the E. huxleyi cells. Even so, the minimum SNR requirements given in Part I for the instrument are met.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2013
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
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  • 6
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 77, No. 2 ( 2023-02), p. 220-224
    Abstract: We describe the control and interfacing of a fluorometer designed for aerial drone-based measurements of chlorophyll- a using an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense board. This 64 MHz controller board provided suitable resolution and speed for analog-to-digital (ADC) conversion, processed data, handled communications via the Robot Operating System (ROS) and included a variety of built-in sensors that were used to monitor the fluorometer for vibration, acoustic noise, water leaks and overheating. The fluorometer was integrated into a small Uncrewed Aircraft System (sUAS) for automated water sampling through a Raspberry Pi master computer using the ROS. The average power consumption was 1.1 W. A signal standard deviation of 334 µV was achieved for the fluorescence blank measurement, mainly determined by the input noise equivalent power of the transimpedance amplifier. An ADC precision of 130 µV for 10 Hz chopped measurements was achieved for signals in the input range 0-600 mV.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
    SSG: 11
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  • 7
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 66, No. 1 ( 2012-01), p. 60-65
    Abstract: Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) of single-cell fluorescence excitation spectra (λ em =680 nm) for five species of marine phytoplankton was used to determine whether intra-species variation among single cells precluded discrimination among species. Single-cell spectra were recorded in an optical trap with a custom-built spectral fluorometer. For nitrogen (N)- replete cells, separation of all five species ( Emiliania huxleyi, a coccolithophore, Thalassiosira pseudonana, a diatom, Dunaliella tertiolecta, a chlorophyte, Amphidinium carterae, a dinoflagellate, and Rhodomonas salina, a cryptophyte) was possible using only a portion of the excitation spectra (570–610 nm). This wavelength region gave perfect classification of species with a minimum Fisher ratio of 62. For four species ( E. huxleyi, T. pseudonana, D. tertiolecta, and A. carterae), variations in fluorescence excitation spectra as cells were starved of N did not impact the classification process adversely within the chosen spectral window. R. salina cells grown with and without N showed significant differences in their fluorescence excitation spectra but could still be classified if a different spectral window (490–570 nm) was used. Overall, we conclude that intra-species variation among single-cell fluorescence excitation spectra does not preclude discrimination among species.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2012
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
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  • 8
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 72, No. 3 ( 2018-03), p. 442-462
    Abstract: An all-pairs method is used to analyze phytoplankton fluorescence excitation spectra. An initial set of nine phytoplankton species is analyzed in pairwise fashion to select two optical filter sets, and then the two filter sets are used to explore variations among a total of 31 species in a single-cell fluorescence imaging photometer. Results are presented in terms of pair analyses; we report that 411 of the 465 possible pairings of the larger group of 31 species can be distinguished using the initial nine-species-based selection of optical filters. A bootstrap analysis based on the larger data set shows that the distribution of possible pair separation results based on a randomly selected nine-species initial calibration set is strongly peaked in the 410–415 pair separation range, consistent with our experimental result. Further, the result for filter selection using all 31 species is also 411 pair separations; The set of phytoplankton fluorescence excitation spectra is intuitively high in rank due to the number and variety of pigments that contribute to the spectrum. However, the results in this report are consistent with an effective rank as determined by a variety of heuristic and statistical methods in the range of 2–3. These results are reviewed in consideration of how consistent the filter selections are from model to model for the data presented here. We discuss the common observation that rank is generally found to be relatively low even in many seemingly complex circumstances, so that it may be productive to assume a low rank from the beginning. If a low-rank hypothesis is valid, then relatively few samples are needed to explore an experimental space. Under very restricted circumstances for uniformly distributed samples, the minimum number for an initial analysis might be as low as 8–11 random samples for 1–3 factors.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2018
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
    SSG: 11
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  • 9
    In: Applied Spectroscopy, SAGE Publications, Vol. 73, No. 3 ( 2019-03), p. 304-312
    Abstract: Phytoplankton play a vital role as primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. One common approach to classifying phytoplankton is fluorescence excitation spectroscopy, which leverages the variation in types and concentrations of pigments among different phytoplankton taxonomic groups. Here, we used a fluorescence imaging photometer to measure excitation ratios (“signatures”) of single cells and bulk cultures of seven differently pigmented phytoplankton species as they progressed from nitrogen N-replete to N-depleted conditions. Our objective was to determine whether N depletion alters the fluorescence excitation signature of each species and, if so, how quickly they recover when N (as nitrate) was resupplied, because these factors affect our ability to classify the species correctly. Of the seven species studied, only Proteomonas sulcata, a marine cryptophyte, showed measurable changes in single-cell fluorescence excitation ratios and bulk fluorescence excitation spectra. These changes were likely due to decreases in the cellular concentration of phycoerythrin, a N-rich pigment, as N became scarce. Within 3 h of resupply of N, fluorescence signatures began returning to pre-depletion values and were indistinguishable from N-replete cells by 80 h after resupply. These data suggest that our classification approach is robust for non-PE containing phytoplankton. PE-containing phytoplankton might exhibit systematic changes in their signatures depending on their level of N depletion, but this could be detected and the phytoplankton re-classified following a few hours of incubation in N replete conditions.
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0003-7028 , 1943-3530
    RVK:
    Language: English
    Publisher: SAGE Publications
    Publication Date: 2019
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1474251-2
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  • 10
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Springer Science and Business Media LLC ; 2023
    In:  Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems Vol. 108, No. 2 ( 2023-06)
    In: Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, Vol. 108, No. 2 ( 2023-06)
    Type of Medium: Online Resource
    ISSN: 0921-0296 , 1573-0409
    Language: English
    Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
    Publication Date: 2023
    detail.hit.zdb_id: 1479543-7
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