Note: Intro -- Title Page -- Contents -- List of Contributors -- Preface -- Part I Introduction -- Chapter 1 Distribution and Determinants of Savannas -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Evolutionary History of Savanna Vegetation and Fauna -- 1.3 Defining Savannas -- 1.3.1 Are Savannas Tropical Systems? -- 1.3.2 Distinguishing Savannas from Grasslands -- 1.3.3 Distinguishing Savannas from Forests -- 1.4 Global Determinants of Savannas -- 1.4.1 Mesic Transition: Points of Contention -- 1.4.1.1 The Role of Nutrients -- 1.4.1.2 Rainfall Seasonality -- 1.4.2 Mesic Transition: Toward Resolution -- 1.4.3 Mesic Transition: Unresolved Ideas -- 1.4.4 Arid Transition -- 1.4.5 Arid Transition: Toward Resolution -- 1.4.6 Determinants of Temperate Savannas -- 1.5 Functional Differences Between Savannas -- 1.5.1 Temperate vs Tropical Savannas -- 1.5.2 Functional Differences Within Tropical Savannas -- 1.6 Conclusions and the Future of Savanna Ecosystems -- References -- Chapter 2 African and Asian Savannas: Comparisons of Vegetation Composition and Drivers of Vegetation Structure and Function -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Climate and Vegetation Formations -- 2.3 Fine-Leaved and Broad-Leaved Savannas: Vegetation Structure, Composition, and Geographic Distribution -- 2.4 Role of Bottom‐Up Drivers in Regulating Vegetation Structure: Climate and Soil Nutrients -- 2.5 Role of Top‐Down Forces: Fire and Herbivory -- 2.6 African and Asian Savannas in the Anthropocene -- References -- Chapter 3 Savannas of Australia and New Guinea: Vegetation and the Functional Role of Extant and Extinct Fauna -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 The Biota of Australia's and New Guinea's Savannas -- 3.3 Climate, Landforms, and Fire -- 3.4 Human History and Impacts -- 3.5 Are Native Mammals Irrelevant? -- 3.6 Was Ecosystem Functioning Different Prior to Human Dispersal to Australia?. , 3.7 Critique of the "Nutrient Poverty/Intense Fire" Theory -- 3.8 Australia's Lost Megafauna -- 3.9 Habitat Variation and the Pleistocene Megafauna -- 3.10 Impacts of Herbivores in Australian Savannas -- 3.11 Toward a New Hypothesis of Plant-Animal Interactions in Australian Savannas -- References -- Chapter 4 South American Savannas -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Origin of South American Savannas -- 4.3 Distribution and Diversity of South American Savannas -- 4.4 Northern Savannas -- 4.4.1 Colombo-Venezuelan Llanos -- 4.4.1.1 Orinoco Llanos -- 4.4.1.2 Llanos Orientales -- 4.4.2 Gran Sabana -- 4.4.3 Rio Branco-Rupununi Savannas -- 4.4.3.1 Rio Branco Savannas -- 4.4.3.2 Rupununi Savannas -- 4.4.4 Savannas of Amapá -- 4.5 Southern Savannas -- 4.5.1 Savannas of Humaitá -- 4.5.2 Savannas of Pará -- 4.5.3 Beni Savannas -- 4.5.4 Cerrado -- 4.5.4.1 Cerrado (Sensu Stricto) -- 4.5.4.2 Cerrado Park -- 4.5.4.3 Palm Groves -- 4.5.4.4 Vereda -- 4.5.4.5 Campo Limpo ("Open Grassland") -- 4.5.4.6 Campo Sujo ("Dense Grassland") -- 4.5.4.7 Campo Rupestre ("Rocky Field") -- 4.5.5 Pantanal -- 4.5.6 Chaco -- 4.6 Effects of Water Deficit, Herbivory, and Fire on Vegetation Dynamics -- 4.6.1 Water Deficit -- 4.6.2 Herbivory -- 4.6.3 Fire -- 4.7 Climate Change, Anthropogenic Pressure, and the Future -- 4.8 Concluding Remarks -- 4.9 Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 5 Savannas of North America -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Definitions -- 5.1.2 Climatic Patterns -- 5.2 Fire -- 5.3 Grazing -- 5.4 Biodiversity -- 5.5 Conservation -- 5.6 Oak Savannas -- 5.6.1 Central US, South-Central Canada, Northern Sierra Madre (Mexico) Oak Savannas -- 5.6.2 California Oak Savannas -- 5.6.3 South-West (Arizona, New Mexico, Northern Mexico) Oak Savannas -- 5.6.4 Pacific Northwest Oak Savannas -- 5.6.5 East-Central US: Glades, Barrens, and Other Forest Openings. , 5.6.6 Oak-Dominated Shrub Savannas -- 5.7 Pine Savannas -- 5.7.1 South-Eastern US Pine Savannas -- 5.7.2 Rocky Mountains Pine Savannas -- 5.8 Juniper Savannas -- 5.8.1 Juniper Savannas in the Western Mountains -- 5.8.2 Eastern Red Cedar Savannas -- 5.8.3 South-Central US and Northern Sierra Madre Oriental Juniper Savannas -- 5.9 Mesquite Savannas -- 5.10 Northern and High‐Elevation Savannas -- 5.11 Shrub Savannas -- 5.12 Conclusions -- 5.13 Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 6 Socioeconomic Value of Savannas -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Land Tenure and Land Use -- 6.3 Livestock Farming -- 6.3.1 Overview -- 6.3.2 Commercial Livestock Farming -- 6.3.3 Subsistence Livestock Farming -- 6.4 Wildlife Industry -- 6.4.1 Overview -- 6.4.2 Ecotourism -- 6.4.3 Hunting -- 6.4.4 Animal Products -- 6.4.5 Game Breeding and Live Sales -- 6.5 Commercial Timber -- 6.6 Non-timber Products -- 6.6.1 Uses -- 6.6.2 Economic Value -- 6.6.2.1 Non-monetary Income -- 6.6.2.2 Cash Income -- 6.6.2.3 Environmental Income -- 6.7 Conclusion -- References -- Part II Herbivores -- Chapter 7 Ecology of Smaller Animals Associated with Savanna Woody Plants: The Value of the Finer Details -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Woody Plant Seed Herbivory -- 7.2.1 Seed Herbivores -- 7.3 Woody Plant Seed and Fruit Dispersal -- 7.3.1 Diplochory -- 7.3.1.1 Seed Dispersal by Birds -- 7.3.1.2 Invertebrate Seed Dispersal -- 7.3.2 Fruit Dispersal -- 7.4 Woody Plant Seedling Establishment -- 7.5 Leaves and Herbivory -- 7.6 Pollination and Nectarivory -- 7.7 Nutrient Cycling -- 7.8 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8 Evolution of Large Mammal Herbivores in Savannas -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Herbivore Dietary Niches -- 8.3 Diversification of Browsers and Grazers -- 8.4 Effects of Vegetation Change -- 8.5 Herbivore Body Size -- 8.6 Pleistocene Extinctions and Contemporary Herbivore Diversity. , 8.7 Summary -- References -- Chapter 9 Browser Population-Woody Vegetation Relationships in Savannas: From Bites to Landscapes -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Factors Influencing Diet Selection -- 9.2.1 Browser Traits that Influence Foraging -- 9.2.1.1 Body Size -- 9.2.1.2 Gut Morphology -- 9.2.2 Woody Plant Traits that Influence Browsers -- 9.2.2.1 Seasonality -- 9.2.2.2 High Nutrient Levels (Positive) -- 9.2.2.3 Chemical Defenses (Negative) -- 9.2.2.4 Physical Defenses -- 9.2.2.5 Mutualisms -- 9.2.3 Herbivore Coping Mechanisms -- 9.3 Browser Impacts on Vegetation -- 9.3.1 Biomass Removal (Small and Large) -- 9.3.2 Impacts on Seeds -- 9.4 Feedback from Browsed Plants to Browsers -- 9.4.1 Lowered Food Availability -- 9.4.2 Habitat Changes -- 9.4.3 Change in Landscapes of Fear -- 9.4.4 New Growth -- 9.4.5 Nutrient Hot Spots -- 9.4.6 Browsing Lawns -- 9.5 Scaling from Bites to Browser Population Dynamics -- 9.5.1 Population Dynamics -- 9.5.2 Intake and Population Size -- 9.5.3 Food Availability, Food Quality, and Population Dynamics -- 9.5.4 Future Research -- 9.6 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 10 Predator Effects on Herbivore Dynamics and Behavior: What Mechanisms Lead to Trophic Cascades in Savannas? -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Consumptive Effects of Predation -- 10.2.1 Concepts, Theory, and Evidence from Biomes Other than Savanna -- 10.2.1.1 Additive Versus Compensatory Mortality -- 10.2.1.2 Predator Functional Response -- 10.2.1.3 Ecosystem Characteristics -- 10.2.2 Evidence from Savannas -- 10.3 Non-consumptive Effects of Predation -- 10.3.1 Concepts, Theory, and Evidence from Biomes Other than Savanna -- 10.3.1.1 Landscape Use -- 10.3.1.2 Vigilance and Grouping Strategies -- 10.3.1.3 The Importance of Food-Safety Trade-Offs -- 10.3.1.4 Demographic Costs of Behavioral Adjustments -- 10.3.2 Evidence from Savannas -- 10.3.2.1 Landscape Use. , 10.3.2.2 Vigilance and Grouping Strategies -- 10.4 Cascading Effects of Consumptive and Non‐consumptive Effects of Predation on Lower Trophic Levels -- 10.5 The Times they Are A-changin': Changes in Megaherbivory, Migration Patterns, and Climate -- References -- Part III Woody Plants -- Chapter 11 Physiological Traits of Savanna Woody Species: Adaptations to Resource Availability -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Soil Nutrients and Root Responses -- 11.3 Leaf Phenology and Available Water -- 11.4 Competition for Resources -- References -- Chapter 12 Patterns and Determinants of Woody Plant Growth in Savannas -- 12.1 Introduction: The Relevance of Growth Rates -- 12.2 Determinants of Growth Rates -- 12.2.1 Seedlings -- 12.2.2 Saplings -- 12.2.3 Adults -- 12.2.4 Demographic Significance -- 12.2.4.1 Growth Trajectory -- 12.2.4.2 Size or Age of Individuals -- 12.2.4.3 Above vs Below Ground -- 12.2.4.4 Plant Part -- 12.2.4.5 Interacting Factors -- 12.2.4.6 Experimental Conditions -- 12.2.4.7 Individual vs Population Growth -- 12.2.4.8 Time and Size -- 12.2.4.9 Species -- 12.2.5 The Value of Long-Term Research -- 12.3 Modeling Growth -- 12.3.1 Insights from Published Data -- 12.3.2 Predicting Rates from Environment or Phylogeny -- 12.3.3 Deficiencies in Growth Rate Data -- 12.4 Conclusions -- 12.A Appendix: Growth Rate Data -- References -- Chapter 13 Fire and Browsers in Savannas: Traits, Interactions, and Continent-Level Patterns -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Browser and Fire Attributes -- 13.2.1 How do Fire and Browsers Compare as Consumers of Woody Plants? -- 13.2.1.1 Frequency and Seasonality -- 13.2.1.2 Selectivity, Intensity, and Scale -- 13.2.1.3 Elimination Thresholds -- 13.2.2 Plant Responses to Fire and Browsing -- 13.2.2.1 Defense Traits -- 13.2.2.2 Architecture -- 13.2.2.3 Resprouting and Bud Protection -- 13.2.2.4 Fire- and Browser-Traps. , 13.2.2.5 Reproduction and Seedling Recruitment.