Note: Cover -- Marine Protected Areas -- ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION -- Title -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Introduction -- References -- Part I Threats to marine ecosystems and resources -- 1. MANAGEMENT - Transitioning from single-sector management to ecosystem-based management: what can marine protected areas offer? -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Human impacts and the loss of goods and services -- 1.3 A complex scenario driven by multiple stressors -- 1.4 The failure of many traditional fisheries management approaches -- 1.5 Ecosystem-based management as a change of perspective -- 1.6 Managing marine biodiversity and human uses with marine protected areas -- 1.7 Are we ready to implement EBM? Moving forward in the face of present limitations -- References -- Part II Effects of marine protected areas -- 2. ECOLOGY - Ecological effects of marine protected areas: conservation, restoration, and functioning -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Populations conservation and restoration: direct effects of protection -- 2.2.1 Direct effects: theoretical insights -- 2.2.2 Direct effects: empirical findings -- 2.2.2.1 Direct effects related to full protection -- 2.2.2.2 Direct effects related to partial protection -- 2.2.3 Heterogeneity and complexities: trajectories and correlates -- 2.2.4 Implications for management -- 2.3 Communities and habitat restoration: indirect effects of protection -- 2.3.1 Predator-prey interactions and trophic cascades -- 2.3.1.1 Theoretical insights -- 2.3.1.2 Empirical findings -- 2.3.2 Other interactions at the population, community, and ecosystem level -- 2.3.2.1 Theoretical insights -- 2.3.2.2 Empirical findings -- 2.3.3 Heterogeneity and complexities: trajectories and correlates -- 2.3.4 Implications for management -- 2.4 Ecosystem functioning: do we protect species or function in marine protected areas?. , 2.4.1 Function restoration: theoretical insights -- 2.4.2 Function restoration: empirical findings -- 2.4.3 Implications for management -- 2.5 Acknowledgments -- References -- 3. FISHERIES - Effects of marine protected areas on local fisheries: evidence from empirical studies -- 3.1 Marine protected areas for fisheries -- 3.2 Mechanisms of effects of marine protected area on fisheries -- 3.2.1 Biomass export -- 3.2.2 Egg and larvae export -- 3.3 Evidence of fisheries effects of marine protected areas -- 3.3.1 Effects on adjacent fisheries -- 3.3.1.1 Direct evidence of spillover -- 3.3.1.2 Indirect evidence of spillover -- 3.3.2 Biomass rebuilding within towed-gear-exclusion MPAs -- 3.4 Summary and discussion of empirical evidence of effects of marine protected areas on fisheries -- 3.5 Conclusions and future research directions -- References -- 4. BIOECONOMY - Economically optimal spatial and inter-temporal fishing patterns in a metapopulation -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Metapopulation dynamics -- 4.3 Economic model -- 4.4 Results -- 4.4.1 Numerical analysis -- 4.4.2 Base case -- 4.4.3 Permanent moratorium -- 4.5 Discussion -- References -- 5. SOCIO-ECONOMY - Social dynamics of scaling-up marine protected area declarations and management -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Methods and research site descriptions -- 5.2.1 Research sites -- 5.2.1.1 Central Visayas 2000 research sites -- 5.2.1.2 South-east and south-west Cebu and northern Bohol 2007 research sites -- 5.2.2 Dependent variables -- 5.2.2.1 Marine protected area performance -- 5.2.2.2 Scaling-up -- 5.2.3 Independent variables -- 5.2.4 Qualitative research methods -- 5.3 Results and Discussion -- 5.3.1 Analysis of MPA performance -- 5.3.2 Analysis of scaling-up marine protected areas -- 5.4 Conclusions -- 5.5 Acknowledgments -- References. , Part III Assessment of the effectiveness of marine protected areas -- 6. ECOLOGY - Assessing effects of marine protected areas: confounding in space and possible solutions -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 "Effects": due to siting bias or protection? -- 6.2.1 Goals -- 6.2.2 Methods -- 6.2.3 Results -- 6.3 Habitat as a covariate: helpful or misleading? -- 6.4 Discussion and conclusions -- 6.5 Acknowledgments -- References -- 7. FISHERIES - Monitoring fisheries effects of marine protected areas: current approaches and the need for integrated assessments -- 7.1. Marine protected areas as fisheries management tools -- 7.2 Fisheries effects of marine protected areas: mechanisms involved and monitoring approaches -- 7.2.1 Mechanisms involved that can enhance fisheries -- 7.2.2 Empirical approaches to assess fisheries effects -- 7.3 Finding an appropriate baseline for assessing fisheries effects -- 7.4 The need for integrated assessments of marine protected areas as fisheries management tools -- 7.5 Acknowledgments -- References -- 8. BIOECONOMY - Bioeconomic analysis of marine protected area fisheries effects -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Bioeconomic modeling of marine protected areas -- 8.2.1 A typology of bioeconomic models of marine protected areas -- 8.2.2 Results and issues -- 8.3 A simple illustrative model -- 8.3.1 Description of the model -- 8.3.1.1 Stock dynamics -- 8.3.1.2 Biomass surplus production within each zone -- 8.3.1.3 Fish mobility between zones -- 8.3.1.4 Catch function and fishing profitability -- 8.3.1.5 Biological equilibrium -- 8.3.1.6 Management -- 8.3.2 How it works -- 8.3.2.1 Impact of fishing effort on equilibrium stock biomasses -- 8.3.2.2 Impact of fishing effort on equilibrium catches -- 8.4 Bioeconomic scenarios of fisheries management -- 8.4.1 Full control of fishing mortality. , 8.4.2 No control of fishing mortality in the fishing zone -- 8.4.3 Limited control of fishing mortality in the fishing zone -- 8.5 Conclusion -- References -- 9. SOCIO-ECONOMY - Assessing the impact of marine protected areas on society's well-being: an economic perspective -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Cost-benefit analysis and marine protected areas -- 9.2.1. Principles of cost-benefit analysis and problems of implementation -- 9.2.2 Application of cost-benefit analysis to marine protected areas -- 9.3 Assessing the local economic impact of marine protected areas -- 9.3.1 Methodological issues -- 9.3.2 Assessing the local economic impact of 12 marine protected areas in southern Europe -- 9.4 Conclusion -- References -- 10. INDICATORS - Constructing and validating indicators of the effectiveness of marine protected areas -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 State of the art on the evaluation of effectiveness of marine protected areas -- 10.2.1 Scales, scopes, and existing frameworks -- 10.2.2 Scientific contributions to assessing management effectiveness and constructing indicators -- 10.3 A collaborative approach between scientists and managers for selecting and validating indicators of marine protected area management effectiveness -- 10.3.1 Metrics, indicators, and performance criteria -- 10.3.2 Formulation of management objectives and management actions -- 10.3.3 Identification of relevant metrics -- 10.3.4 Observation protocols and analysis of metrics -- 10.3.5 Interpretation of indicators -- 10.3.6 Validation of metrics as indicators -- 10.3.7 Increasing indicator efficiency through improved and cost-effective observation protocols -- 10.3.8 Synthesizing and communicating indicators -- 10.4 Illustration of the approach -- 10.4.1 Formulation of management objectives and management actions -- 10.4.2 Indicators related to biodiversity and resources. , 10.4.2.1 Identification and estimation of relevant metrics -- 10.4.2.2 Analysis of metrics -- 10.4.2.3 Increasing indicator efficiency through improved and cost-effective observation protocols -- 10.4.3 Indicators related to uses and governance -- 10.4.3.1 Identification and estimation of relevant metrics -- 10.4.3.2 Analysis of metrics -- 10.4.3.3 Designing cost-effective observation protocols -- 10.4.4 Interpretation of indicators -- 10.5 Conclusions -- 10.6 Acknowledgments -- References -- Part IV Scale-up of marine protected area systems -- 11. NETWORKS - The assessment of marine reserve networks: guidelines for ecological evaluation -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Defining networks: different types, different outcomes -- 11.3 Network evaluation: is a group of reserves functioning as a network? -- 11.3.1 General criteria and challenges -- 11.3.2 Cumulative versus synergistic responses -- 11.4 Empirically assessing marine reserve networks -- 11.4.1 Experimental designs for network assessments -- 11.4.2 Practical considerations for assessing connectivity in a network -- 11.5 The need for interactive empirical modeling approaches -- 11.6 Specific challenges at varying spatial and temporal scales -- 11.7 Humans as key players in the success of marine reserve networks -- 11.8 Conclusion -- 11.9 Acknowledgments -- References -- 12. CONNECTIVITY - Spacing a network of marine protected areas based on connectivity data -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Update status of connectivity in the sea: from open to semi-closed populations -- 12.3 Implications for design and assessment of marine protected area networks -- 12.4 Integrating connectivity into the design of marine protected area networks -- 12.5 Conclusion -- References -- 13 REPRESENTATIVENESS - Effectiveness of the global network of marine protected areas -- 13.1 Introduction. , 13.2 World Database on Protected Areas.